Circulatory System Flashcards
Describe the circulatory system and define the blood, the heart and the blood vessels
The circular tree system is a transport system of the body by which food oxygen and water and other essential nutrients can be carried
The blood is a liquid containing suspended cells which carries substances around the body
The heart and muscular pump which provides the force needed to move the blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen around the body
The blood vessels, the tubes through which the blood travels to through and from the tissues
Describe blood and explain it’s main continence
Blood has both liquid and solid components and it is actually a complex connective tissue in which living blood cells are suspended and nonliving fluid called plasma.
On average adults have 3 to 5 L of blood mainly constituting plasma at 55% red blood cells I’m ever through sites make up 44%. The remaining 1% of blood consist of white blood cells.
Blood gain its colour through haemoglobin found in red blood cells oxygenated haemoglobin or HbO2 is a red colour
What is the difference between plasma and blood?
Blood contains plasma as it has both liquid and solid components the nonliving fluid matrix called plasma as well as blood cells and white blood cells
What is the difference between plasma and blood?
Blood contains plasma as it has both liquid and solid components the nonliving fluid matrix called plasma as well as blood cells and white blood cells
Describe the five components of plasma and their uses
Water many of the substance carried in plasma I dissolved in water additionally it replenishes intercellular fluid 90% of plasma is water
Proteins are mostly made in the liver, including albumin and globulin we shall responsible for maintaining osmotic pressure in the blood. Fibrinogen is essential for forming blood clots plasma without fibrinogen serum.
Salts primarily in chloride sulphate and phosphate potassium and calcium they help maintain the pH of the body neutralising acid or alkali when they formed
Urea is the waste product of protein metabolism in the liver where amino acids are broken down metabolised it is transported along with other waste products to be removed excreted from the kidneys
Glucose this is a simple sugar is a product of carbohydrate digestion and is the cellular respiration in all cells is transported along with other digested food products such as amino acids
State the three types of blood cell
Red blood cell
White blood cell
Platelets
Give a detailed explanation of red blood cells, their contents and why the contents are evolved that way
Red blood cells erythrocytes are concave discs which do not have a nucleus. They are packed full of haemoglobin at 5 million red blood cells per millimetre of blood. The red blood cells developed in the bone marrow formed from stem cells and then under the influence of vitamin B12 vitamin C cobalt copper folic acid they mature so they can release into the bloodstream.
During this process they build up haemoglobin and lose the nucleus and other organelles haemoglobin is the iron containing protein that transport most of the oxygen that is contained within the blood. Haemoglobin absorbs oxygen from the lungs and is released to the tissues. No nucleus means more space for red blood cells to carry oxygen using haemoglobin but this means the cells have a limited lifespan of up to 120 days.
Explain white blood cells and where they are made and the two main types
White blood cells unknown as leucocytes are the only complete cells in the blood containing nuclei and organelles. White blood cells are made in the bone marrow but some of the mature in lymphatic system.
The two main types of leukocyte in the blood are granulocytes also known as polymorphnuclear leucocytes and agranulocytes.
What are the three granulocytes
Granulocytes or polymorphonuclear leukocytes contain granules in their cytoplasm include the following cells
Neutrophils which make up 40 to 70% of white blood cells
active phagocytes protecting the body against bacterial invasion
Eosinophils make up one to 4% of white blood cells
They kill parasitic worms
Basophils make up 0 to one percent of white blood cells. The rarest white blood cell contain histamine are involved in inflammation and allergic reaction reactions.
Describe the types of Agranulocytes
Types of Agranulocytes
Agranulocytes are white blood cells (WBCs) that lack granules in their cytoplasm. They play key roles in immunity.
Two Types:
1. Lymphocytes
• T cells – Attack infected cells & regulate immune response.
• B cells – Produce antibodies.
• Natural Killer (NK) cells – Destroy virus-infected & cancerous cells.
2. Monocytes
• Largest WBCs, become macrophages when they enter tissues.
• Engulf and digest pathogens & dead cells (phagocytosis).
Agranulocytes are essential for long-term immunity and defense!
Monocytes are made in red bone marrow and lymphatic tissue the largest of the blood cells they remove foreign particles by phagocytosis
Macrophage cells derived from mono site that accesses a faggot site in non-specific response forms in antigen-presenting so in the specific immune response
Describe platelets and their function
Platelets also known as the thrombocytes are made in the bone marrow and are essential for blood clotting
They are small cytoplasmic fragments of large cells in the bone marrow in humans. They do not have a nucleus on our approximately a third of the size of an erythrocyte. There’s about 250,000 platelets per bill each of blood.
Clotting involves a series of enzyme controlled reactions which produce a fibre is made of proteins called fibrin formed from a jellylike clot but rise to form a scab.
Describe the nine functions of the blood
- to carry oxygen to tissues using haemoglobin
- To curry dissolved digested feud such as glucose and amino acids.
- To remove waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea through excretion.
- To defend the body against the entry of pathogens using white blood cells.
- To carry water to tissues and cells which is removed through the kidneys.
- To provide material for which glands make their secretions.
- To carry hormones around the body.
- To distribute heat evenly around the body and regulate temperature.
- To stop bleeding and blood loss from cuts/haemorrhage through Cotton.
Explain a ABO blood group system and its effect on transfusions
ABO Blood Groups & Transfusions
The ABO blood group system is based on the presence or absence of A and B antigens on red blood cells and anti-A and anti-B antibodies in plasma.
Blood Groups:
1. Type A → A antigen, anti-B antibodies
2. Type B → B antigen, anti-A antibodies
3. Type AB → A & B antigens, no antibodies (universal recipient)
4. Type O → No antigens, anti-A & anti-B antibodies (universal donor)
Who Can Receive What?
• A → A, O
• B → B, O
• AB → A, B, AB, O (Universal Recipient)
• O → O (Universal Donor)
Type O- is the universal donor for all blood types, while AB+ can receive from any type!
The blood group name refers to the antigens on the cell surface of the red blood cells for example blood group a has antigens on cell surface for a similar to blood group B and AB however blood group O has no antigens on cell surface.
This is important for blood transfusions as people who are blood group a do not have antigens for for a within their plasma as this would cause agglutination and begin the immune response instead they only hav antibody B. Blood group AB has no antibodies in the plasma and oh has both antibody a and B.
Which is the most useful blood group for transfusions and why?
Blood group O is the most useful for transfusions as it has no antigens on the red blood cells so if you give this to a patient either of the antibodies regardless if they are a group a group B or a B will react and not cause agglutination.
Explain the rhesus factor
The rhesus factor is a protein which oxygen antigen found on the red cells of around 85% of the population people with the rhesus factor or are rhesus positive and people without are negative if the mother and a baby have different factors this can cause issues during pregnancy
What type of muscle is in the heart and why is it evolved for the heart?
The heart is comprised of cardiac tissue called myocardium which has its own intrinsic rhythm. Cardiac muscle does not get fatigued like the striated muscle responsible for skeletal movement. The external hot muscle is supplied with oxygen by the coranary arteries so muscle does not use oxygen from the blood inside the heart.
Describe and explain the structure of the heart
The heart is divided from the base to the apex by the muscular septum which splits the heart into 2/2 left heart and right heart in a normal heart. There is no communication between the left and right side however in a baby there was a hole in the septum which allows blood to pass between the 2/2.
The heart is contained in a fibrous sack called the pericardium and the smooth membrane lining chambers of the heart is called the endocardium. The small upper chambers are called atria and the more muscular lower chambers are called ventricles.
Deoxygenated Blood flows from the vena cava into the right atrium where it reaches the tricuspid valve which has 3 flaps and separates the right atrium and ventricle. The right ventricle then contracts pushing deoxygenated blood up past the pulmonary valve (semilunar) up to the pulmonary atery which leads to the lungs.
Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the pulmonary vein into the left atrium where it passes the bicuspid valve which has two flops into the left ventricle left ventricle contracts and passes oxygen aid blood past the aortic valve (semi lunar) to the aorta
What is the tricuspid’s valve function?
It prevents backflow into the right atrium via the right ventricle
What is the pulmonary valves functional?
It prevents backflow into the right ventricle
The love love sound made when your heart beats is actually due to the black flow of the blood hitting the heart of valves when they close closing the bicuspid and try cuss with valves
What does the pulmonary artery do in which side of the heart? Is it located on?
The pulmonary artery is located on the right side of the heart and it pushes the deoxygenated blood to the lungs to be oxygenated
What is the function of the pulmonary vein?
The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium when it contracts and forces blood through the mitral or bicuspid valve into the ventricle
What is the largest artery in the body? And what side of the body is it on?
The aorta is found on the left side of the heart
Explain the concepts of diastole and systole
In reality, the atria contract at the same time this is referred to as atrial systole similar to ventricular systole which is a state when the heart muscle contracts and force blood out into the blood vessels
Alternatively, diastole is when the heart muscle relax and blood fills the heart this is when the blood pressure in the arteries is that lowest
What governs the rhythm of cardiac muscle contraction?
And average adult heart rate is approximately 70 bpm cardiac muscle has the intrinsic ability to be rhythmically without any chemical or electrical stimulus. This process is governed by the special area of Kodak cardiac muscle called Sino atrial node found close to where the superior vena cava enters the heart.
The sinoatrial node is also referred to as the pacemaker region for the heart. A contraction impulse starting at the sign of actual mood spreads rapidly to the walls of the atria so they can contract and initiate the heartbeat. The wave of excitation triggers the response to the second region called atrio ventricular node Which after a brief pause transmits the impulse to the walls of the ventricles through special tissues called purkinje fibres
Load the heartbeat is automatic it can be sped up or slowed down by the nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system slows both the rate and force of contraction is sympathetic. Nervous system increases both rate and force of contraction.
Describe the structure of arteries and how they are adapted to carry the type of blood they carry and where they carry that blood
All carry blood away from the heart to the organs of the body. This is usually bright red oxygenated blood except for the pulmonary artery which takes perfectly red the oxygenated blood to the lungs.
In terms of structure arteries have thick walls containing muscle and elastic fibres with a tough outer layer of smooth lining of endothelial cells and a relatively small lumen because the blood in the arteries is under pressure. It is very dangerous of an arteries cut because the blood spurt rapidly.
Describe and explain the function of arterioles
Arterioles or smaller than arteries have less fibrous tissue. They have a lot of smooth muscle in their contact and relax to control the blood flow between the artery and the capillaries in the tissues.
Describe the structure and function of capillaries
Capillaries form a huge network of tiny vessels linking arterioles and venues they are one cell thick with a high surface area to allow for diffusion of molecules such as glucose and carbon dioxide from the blood into your cells
Describe the function of venules
Venules a small veins that link capillaries to larger veins
Describe the structure and function of veins
Veins curry deoxygenated blood back to the heart which is usually a deep purpleish colour. They have a lot of thinner walls and arteries and lower pressure due to reduce layer of muscle and elastic fibres. Veins often have valves to prevent backflow of blood as it moves back to the heart.
Describe the structure of a vein by layers starting from the outside to the inside
Veins contain an outer tough collagen rich layer followed by a thin layer of elastic fibres and smooth muscle and an inner layer of endothelial cells and a large lumen
Describe the structure of arteries via layers starting from the outside to the inside
Arteries contain a fibrous outer layer followed by thick layer elastic and smooth muscle followed by in a layer of endothelial cells with a relatively narrow lumen
Explain the concept of humans having a double circulatory system
Humans have two completely different circulation systems in the body. The pulmonary circulation takes the deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs where is oxygenated back to the heart. in the lungs, carbon dioxide is released from the blood plasma to the air and the viola to be breathed out and inhale oxygen is absorbed into the air by the red blood cells.
The systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the heart around the body and brings the oxygenated blood back from the tissues to the right atrium.
The blood supply to the liver is slightly different. Liver receive oxygenated blood from the hepatic artery as normal but it also receives blood from the stomach intestines, spleen and pancreas via the hepatic portal vein. The blood from the hepatic portal vein is loaded with the products of digestion the liver processes these molecules in all the blood leaves the liver through the hepatic vein.
Explain the lymphatic system step-by-step
Lymphatic System Works
Step 1: Fluid Collection
• Blood capillaries leak plasma (fluid) into tissues.
• Some of this fluid returns to the blood, but the rest (10%)becomes lymph, which enters lymph vessels.
Step 2: Transporting Lymph
• Lymph vessels carry the fluid through the body, relying on muscle contractions to move it.
• Along the way, it passes through lymph nodes, which filter out harmful substances.
Step 3: Immune Defense
• Lymph nodes contain white blood cells (lymphocytes) that detect and fight infections.
• If an infection is found, the immune system activates and produces antibodies to attack it.
Step 4: Returning Clean Fluid to the Blood
• Once filtered, lymph re-enters the bloodstream through the subclavian veins near the heart.
• This helps maintain blood volume and prevents fluid buildup in tissues (edema).
- Why is the Lymphatic System Important?
• Fights infections: Identifies and destroys harmful invaders.
• Removes waste: Clears excess fluid and toxins.
• Absorbs fats: In the small intestine, it helps absorb dietary fats and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).
• Prevents swelling (edema): Drains excess fluid from tissues.
If the lymphatic system is blocked or damaged, it can lead to swelling (lymphedema), weakened immunity, or infections.
Describe the pathology of anaemia giving common causes and symptoms
As a condition where the blood does not carry oxygen and can lead to symptoms such as tightness theology feeling fainting breathless
Common causes of anaemia include not enough haemoglobin in the red blood cells as a result of lack of iron vitamin B12 folic acid in the diet
Sickle cell anaemia which is a genetic disorder which is caused by abnormal haemoglobin
Reduce number of red blood cells from bleeding or haemorrhage or cancer (aplastic anemia)
Describe the pathology of leukaemia and the opposing leukopenia
Leukaemia which means white blood is where the bone marrow becomes cancerous and rapidly produce produces vast numbers of white blood cells which are immature and do not work properly in the immune system. As a result the body can no longer fight disease causing bacteria or viruses.
Opposing leukopenia is a lack or two few of white blood cells which can be caused by certain medicine such as cortosteroids and anti-cancer agents.
What are the major constituents of blood by percentage?
Pasma takes up 55% of blood volume red blood cells 44 and the remaining one percent consist of white blood cells
Explain the functions of the following proteins albumin globulin fibrinogen
Albumin and globulin are responsible for maintaining osmotic pressure in the blood
Fibrinogen is a clotting factor and when it’s removed from the blood it is referred to as serum
If a person has blood type a what blood can they receive? Additionally what if the person has blood type AB or O?
Blood type a has a antigens on its surface which means it can receive blood from a & O blood types as A would have no A antibodies to respond to its antigens
Additionally, O can be given to all blood types as there is no antigens on the surface for anti A or anti B to cause agglutination / lymphocyte activity
What are the causes of heart failure?
High blood pressure, heart valve disease, arrhythmia, enlargement of heart, to drugs and chemicals, e.g. alcohol cocaine chemotherapeutic
What is ischaemic heart disease? What could it be caused by? And what are the potential symptoms?
Ischaemic heart disease is caused by a block or narrowing of the coronary artery supplying the heart with oxygenated blood and can lead to angina as well as myocardial infarction (heart attack)
It can be caused by a blood clot or a fatty plaque block
What is hypertension? Include a normal reading.
Hypertension is high blood pressure a normal pressure being 120/80 which is systolic over diastolic pressure.
Hypertension can cause damage to the heart brain, kidney and eye if untreated and can be the cause of many strokes and heart attacks and even kidney damage , blindness and enlarged heart
It can be caused by artherosclerosis
Explain atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a buildup of yellowish fat deposits/plaque on the endothelium of the Aries which restricts blood flow or even blocks completely increasing the risk of heart attack and stroke and is commonly treated with a stent and metal mesh placed in an artery and a balloon inflated
What treatments are used for simple anaemia, patience with a high risk of thrombosis and patients with LDL cholesterol at high levels/atherosclerosis?
Irons are used to treat a simple anaemia as iron is needed to make haemoglobin
Anticoagulant to reduce the tenancy of a blood clot and lower stroke risk
Lipid regulators are used to lower LDL in atherosclerosis
What is used to treat the following heart conditions?
Congestive heart failure
Arrhythmia
Odema/chronic heart failure/hypertension
Positive inotropic agents increase the force of contraction and are used in treating congestive heart failure
Arrhythmias can be treated using antiarrhythmic drugs including beta blockers calcium channel blockers
Diuretics which stimulate the output of urine by the kidneys reduce oedema and help to chronic heart failure by reducing blood pressure
What is used to treat diseases of blood vessels?
Hypertension & angina
Ace inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers increase vasodilation reduce the formation of vasoconstricted angiotensin by the kidneys to treat hypertension
Nitrates cause relaxation of vascular smooth muscle in both arteries and veins and treat angina
