Church History

Question 1

What is the value of studying church history?

Answer 1

There are many reasons to study church history, but perhaps the most significant is the fact that it is the means by which we learn from example (both positive and negative) of our predecessors, which assists us in “expanding our present” and “shaping our future.” As well, the study of Church history prevents us from being abstract, theoretical, and academic regarding truth, as it enables us to see how truth relates to life’s practicalities.” A third reason would be that the sin patterns of a different generation would be different from our own, and therefore they could inform us of our abuses of the Word of God.

Question 2

Briefly trace the spread of Christianity through the centuries.

Answer 2

• Resurrection-100 AD

The gospel began to spread through most of the Mediterranean region as well as reaching Mesopotamia, Syria, and likely India.

• 100—325

In the 2nd Century, the church spread into Gaul (France), Germany, and North Africa. In the 3rd Century, Christianity moved into Persia and most of Asia Minor. In the face of intense Roman persecution, Christianity had grown and had churches in most Roman provinces, spreading throughout the Roman empire and even beyond.

• 325-600

Reached the British isles where Ireland became a sending off point for missionaries

• 500-700

With the rise of Islam in the face of half-hearted Christianity, some areas like the Middle East and North Africa, previously strongholds of the gospel became desolate of Christianity.

• 700-1500

Up to the split of the Eastern and Western Church in 1050 and the period of stagnation and the damage of the crusades-Christianity began to make inroads into East Asia during the latter part of this period.

• 1500-1600

Reformation led to a renewed push for missions and revival among churches.

• 1600-1800

Colonization leads to the spread of Christianity to America, Australia and Western and Southern Africa.

• 1800-1900

Modern missionary movement William Carey, Hudson Taylor, etc.

• 1900-2000

The Gospel flourishes in Asia, Africa, and South America.

Question 3

What were the “sola’s” of the Reformation?

Answer 3

Sola Scriptura (Scripture alone),

Sola Fides (Faith alone),

Sola Gratia (Grace alone),

Sola Christos (Christ alone),

Soli Deo Gloria (Only to the Glory of God)

Question 4

Briefly discuss the development of ‘covenant theology’.

Answer 4

Ultimately Covenant theology begins in Scripture and was to some extent developed by Augustine. What we know as covenant theology first appeared in the works of Zwingli and Bullinger. Calvin, whose name is usually most associated with covenant theology really only has it in seed form. It gained greater strength among 17th century theologians where it became known as federal theology. Ursinus and especially Olevianus, the founder of a well-developed federal theology, developed the understanding of the covenant of works and the covenant of grace and subordinated the covenant to the doctrine of election. Cocceius stressed the Biblical theology approach of looking at the covenant history (pre-Vos). Prior to this century, covenant theology saw the covenant as a contractual agreement between God entered into with man. With more recent language and archaeological discoveries, covenant theology has come to emphasize the relationship between God and man as a vassal relationship, patterned after the covenants of that time, established and maintained by God’s grace. Through this theology a greater emphasis was placed on God’s gracious and faithful dealing with mankind.

Question 5

Methodist churches

Answer 5

Origins: Began in Oxford University as a movement within the Church of England and expanded under the leadership of Charles and John Wesley

Distinctives: Typically has been concerned with ministry to the poor and disadvantages, expressing its faith in compassion for human condition.

Question 6

Pentecostal churches

Answer 6

Origins: Born out of the movement that was sparked in 1901 when Miss Agnes Ozman, a Bethel Bible College student, spoke in tongues after principal Charles Partham laid hands on her and prayed for her to receive the power of the Spirit.

Distinctives: Seeking to receive the gift of tongues is regarded as a sign of baptism of the Holy Spirit, itself a requisite for full discipleship. Other gifts are sought as well: healing, love, joy, answers to prayer, etc.

Question 7

Episcopal churches

Answer 7

Origins: the Episcopalian Church began in America as an extension of the Church of England. However, During the American Revolution a great controversy arose over prayers for the monarchy in the liturgy, so after the revolution it severed ties with the Church of England and became its own denomination.

Distinctives: Acknowledges no central authority, though maintains a hierarchy of bishops, relies totally on traditional liturgical worship, while not defining the exact nature of the communion element (regarded as a mystery).

Question 8

Presbyterian churches

Answer 8

Origins: Dating back to John Knox in 1560 and the Scots Confession becoming the expression of government assigned by the Westminster Assembly in the Form of Government.

Distinctives: Offices of Teaching Elder and Ruling Elder. Usually hold to the WCF, Spiritual presence in the elements (Calvin),

Question 9

Baptist churches

Answer 9

Origins: A third-generation Reformation development that appeared in England about 1610 wanting to take Protestantism to its logical conclusion. Convinced that Puritanism needed to still be reformed.

Distinctives: Believe only self-professed believers are eligible for admission to the church. Practice believer-baptism, evangelistic, missions and biblically minded

Question 10

Orthodox churches

Answer 10

Origins: 1056 schism between East and West (Bishop of Constantinople vs. Bishop of Rome)

Distinctives: icons, 7 Ecumenical Councils, don’t hold to the Pope, traditionalist, ornate to use all senses in worship

Question 11

Mennonite churches

Answer 11

Origins: Dating from 1520’s in central Europe, take name from Menno Simmons who led them in a pursuit of biblical living.

Distinctives: No common doctrine, rejection of infant baptism, real presence at the Lord’s supper, pacifist, no oaths, complete separation of church and state

Question 12

Lutheran churches

Answer 12

Origins: Germany; Martin Luther, 1517 October 31 commonly the beginning of the reformation. 1521 Diet of Worms which lead to Luther’s excommunication.

Distinctives: Consubstantiation, Salvation by grace, justification by faith, Augsburg Confession (and the Book of Concord)

Question 13

Council of Nicea

Answer 13

325

The council of Nicea was concerned primarily with the nature of the second person of the trinity—Jesus Christ. Arius asserted that Christ was not eternally generated from the Father, but created from the non-existent. Athanasius and his followers asserted that Christ was eternally begotten of the father. The semi-Arians argued that Christ was homoiousios (“of similar substance”) with the father. The Council adopted the Athanasian position of homoousios (“the same essence”).

Question 14

Council of Chalcedon

Answer 14

451

The Christological council. Christ is one person, with two natures.
The Council of Chalcedon dealt with the heresies of Nestorianism and Eutychianism. The Eutychians taught that Christ possessed two natures in one person, and that each performs its own function. The Council asserted that the redemption of fallen humans required a mediator who was human and divine, passible and impassible, mortal and immortal, and that Jesus Christ permanently assumed human nature. Significantly the Council asserted that properties of both Christ’s human and divine natures can be attributed to one person, that the suffering “I” ; of the God-man can be regarded as truly, really infinite, yet the divine nature remained impassible, that divinity and not humanity is the root and basis of Christ’ s personality, and that the logos did not unite with a distinct human individual, but with a human nature.

Question 15

Reformation

Answer 15

1517

We may use this as a date for the Reformation since the beginning of the Reformation is traditionally tied to Luther’s nailing of his Ninety-five theses to the door at Wittenburg. This was the culmination of a developing movement to reform the Catholic Church from it medieval laxity. Above all it was a time of spiritual renewal in which God graciously intervened to return his gospel to the center stage of human history.

Question 16

Counter-Reformation

Answer 16

1534-1563 (1540’s)

The Counter-reformation was the Catholic response to the Reformation in which many of the abuses of the Catholic church were corrected, and traditional Catholic doctrine was resoundingly re-affirmed. This formulated in the articles of the Council of Trent, a council which was held to combat the spread of Protestantism. Affirmed that Church/tradition were on par with Scripture, sacraments and transubstantiation, and justification is faith plus works.

Question 17

Heidelberg Catechism

Answer 17

1563

Written by Olevianus and Ursinus this beautiful work has the form of a catechism, but the content of a confession. Held by the Continental Reformed Church (European-German, Dutch). Many say the Heidelberg Catechism has a more personal feel than the Westminster Confession.

Question 18

Belgic Confession

Answer 18

1561

Written by Guido de Bres this confession is one of the three standards of the Dutch Reformed Church. It draws heavily on the Gallican Confession.

Question 19

Synod of Dort

Answer 19

1618

A convening of Reformed thinkers to answer the assertions of the Remonstrants. Although political and other issues affecting the Dutch church were raised at this Synod, its primary business was answering the five points of Arminianism. Their response is what we today know as TULIP, or the five points of Calvinism.

Question 20

Westminster Assembly

Answer 20

1643-1652

The Westminster Assembly was a gathering of eminent Puritan divines, assembled by the British Parliament in 1643 with the charge of producing a Confession of Faith to unite the United Kingdom ecclesiastically. The assembly sat from 1643-1652, during which time it handled ecclesiastical concerns such as the ordination of ministers, trial of heretics, etc. its most enduring work is the Confession of Faith, and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms. These would become the standard of faith and practice for the Presbyterian, Congregational and Regular Baptist churches in Scotland, England and America. The Confession and Catechisms were borne out of Scotch and English Calvinism, and were structured upon the foundation of the “Irish Articles of Faith” of 1615.

Question 21

Pietism

Answer 21

1600s

Primarily based in Germany, it was a movement against dead orthodoxy in the
Lutheran Church. The common emphasis was on individual conversion and living orthodoxy that lead to a changed life. The duo of Spener and Franke at the Halle began the movement which was later carried by Zinzendorf and the Moravians. The movement played a large influence in the development of the modern missionary movement.

Emphases:

• Individual experience over theology
• New birth
• Spiritual discipline
• Lay involvement in the church
• Renewal preaching
• Love for all people.

Question 22

First Great Awakening

Answer 22

1741-1745

The Great Awakening was a remarkable outpouring of
the Holy Spirit that swept through New England colonies. Through the Reformed preaching of George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards, thousands were truly converted to Christ. There were however, many instances of abuse that accompanied the outpouring prompting the able mind of Edwards to defend the true nature of the Awakening in such works as ‘‘Distinguishing Marks” and “Treatise on the Religious Affections.” Tennet: “Danger of an unconverted ministry .”

Question 23

Second Great Awakening

Answer 23

1800-1825

After the First Great Awakening steady religious decline brought the country to a new religious low by the 1800’s. Unlike the First Great Awakening this revival went in to the frontier as well. It was also characterized by a longer duration and more fervor than concern for theology. This awakening led to significant church growth, improvement of morals and national life, checking of the growth of Deism, growth of missions, and social reform movements. It left a permanent mark on the American evangelical scene with its revivalistic emphasis and Arminian theology.

Question 24

Old Side/New Side

Answer 24

1741-1758

This was the controversy over the Great Awakening. The New Side was pro-revival and staunchly Calvinistic. Included in the New Side ranks were Edwards, Tennet, and Whitefield. The Old Side were Anti-Revival. Many were Arminian, Unitarian or Universalist. The most famous Old Side adherent was Charles Chaucy.

Question 25

Old school/New school

Answer 25

1837

This was the controversy over the Second Great Awakening. There was an effort to create a cooperative plan for reaching the frontier out of which emerged a debate over seeming doctrinal indifference. The Old School were strict subscriptionists, and skeptical about the excesses of the Cane Ridge revivals and the New Measures of Finny. The New School was, at best, lax subscriptionists, and often Arminian or rationalists. This controversy would split the Presbyterian Church into two denominations in 1837, a division that would last until the reunification–only to split again along North-South line in the Civil War Era.

Question 26

Auburn Affirmation

Answer 26

1924

Issued by a group of Presbyterians meeting in Auburn, New York this was designed to safeguard the unity and liberty of the Presbyterian Church. The affirmation was intended to display tolerance, but became a marker on the battle field between conservative and liberals in the church. The Affirmation denied the need of ordained Ministers to commit to the five essentials:

1. Inspiration and inerrancy of Scripture;
2. The virgin birth;
3. Substitutionary atonement
4. Christ real and historical resurrection and
5. Jesus working of miracles

Question 27

Scholasticism

Answer 27

The system and method of learning for philosophy and theology during the medieval period as developed in European university contexts. It relied on philosophical methods and the use of reason to make clear divisions and distinctions within a body of knowledge. The system flourished from the 11 th-14th centuries. Some notable scholastics include: Thomas Aquinas, Peter Abelard, Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Lombard and Duns Scotus.

Question 28

Babylonian Captivity

Answer 28

Also known as the Avignon schism. Period in the 14th century when popes lived in Avignon, France, due to the political situation. The term, which referred to the Jews’ captivity in Babylon (586 BC), was used by Luther in the 16th century to describe the Roman Catholic Church’s “captivity” to the papacy and need for gospel liberation.

Question 29

Humanism

Answer 29

An intellectual movement in 14th-16th century Europe in which man was the measure of all things. It sought to base education on the Greek and Latin classics, interpreted from within a Christian context. Theologically, the term indicates the high value that Christianity places on humans as created and redeemed by God.

Question 30

Radical Reformation

Answer 30

The “left” of “third” wind of the Protestant Reformation that describes those who sought a radical approach, a return to early Christian precedents for the nature and government of the church, rejecting national or state churches. Among others it included the Anabaptists such as the Mennonites and the Amish.

Question 31

Puritanism

Answer 31

16th and 17th century Protestant religious movement that sought to “purify” the Church of England in more Reformed Protestant directions. The movement was Calvinistic in theology -and Presbyterian or Congregational in church government. The church reform impulses were continued in America, primarily in New England where it was a major cultural force. Puritans stressed theology as leading to ethical action while ethics is grounded in true theology.

Question 32

Modernism

Answer 32

A theological movement of the late 19th and early 20tb centuries among Protestants and Roman Catholics who sought to interpret Christianity in light of modern knowledge. It
sought to alter Christian doctrine, which was seen as evolving and in need of being reshaped by modern knowledge. It was condemned by Pope Pius X in 1907. Schliermacher, Fosdick.

Question 33

Fundamentalism

Answer 33

Term for evangelicalism in 20th century America that sought to preserve conservative
Protestant views and values against liberal theology and the higher criticism of Scripture. A strong focus was on the inerrancy and literal interpretation of Scripture.

Question 34

Neo-orthodoxy

Answer 34

Return to Christianity without having to be historically grounded. Somewhat a theological rediscovery of biblical doctrines, but with the modem naturalistic presuppositions. A theological movement including Karl Earth, Emil Brunner, and others. It opposed liberal theology and stressed the reinterpretation of Reformation themes such as God’s transcendence, human sinfulness, and the centrality of Christ. It was dominant in Europe and America after World War n until the 1960’s. Also called Neo-Calvinism, Neo-Protestantism, and Neo-Reformation theology.

Question 35

Polycarp

Answer 35

[2nd century] Disciple of the apostle John, later became bishop of Smyrna. He seems to have been the leading Christian figure in Roman Asia in the middle of the 2nd century and his long life is thus an important link between the apostolic age and the great Christian writers who flourished in the 2nd century

Question 36

Clement

Answer 36

[1st century] Wrote the epistle to the Corinthians stressing the importance of Apostolic succession. Considered to be the 4th pope by the Roman Catholic Church. Likely martyred under Dominitian in 100 AD .

Question 37

Ignatius

Answer 37

[2nd century] Bishop of Antioch. Wrote seven letters giving insight into Christians’ attitudes toward persecution. Opposed Gnosticism. First to distinguish between bishops and elders. Martyred under Trajan.

Question 38

Marcion

Answer 38

[2nd century] Heretic. Beginning around 145, Marcion taught that Jehovah, the god of the Old Testament was an arbitrary and vindictive god distinct from the God and Father of Jesus of the New Testament. He believed that the Father’s purpose was to create only a spiritual world, but Jehovah, out of evil intent or ignorance made the physical world and placed mankind in it. God of the New Testament sent Jesus because he is a God of love, and in the end there will be no judgment because of his love. In order to support these views Marcion produced his own canon, rejecting the Old Testament and accepting only the book of Luke and certain edited versions of Paul’s letters.

Question 39

Justin

Answer 39

[2nd century ] One of the great apologist of the 2nd century, he personally opposed Marcion. He also was the first orthodox writer to evaluate the relationship between Christianity and Philosophy. He taught that all truth belongs to Christians, and developed the doctrine of the logos. He was beheaded in Rome under Marcus Aurelius.

Question 40

Eusebius of Caesarea

Answer 40

[3rd-4th century] Father of church history, he wrote Ecclesiastical History. Bishop of Caesarea during the Arian controversy and Council of Nicea. Eusebius dealt mainly with the succession of Christian bishops and teachers from apostolic times, heresies, the suffering of the Jews, and the persecution and martyrdom of Christians. He also recounted traditions about the New Testament writers and details about the canon of Scripture. .

Question 41

Tertullian

Answer 41

[2nd-3rd century] He was the first major Christian author to write in Latin. He was therefore the first to use many of the technical words common in later Christian theological debates. Tertullian lived most, if not all, his life in Carthage, capital of the Roman province of Africa. He vigorously opposed heresies in the church such as Marcionism, and was an advocate for purity and holiness in the church.

Question 42

Constantine

Answer 42

[3-4th century] He was an emperor of the Roman Empire who before a ‘particular battle received a vision in which he was told to place the Christian symbol “Xp” on the shields of his men. He was victorious in the battle and from that time was converted to the Christian faith. One of the most significant aspects of Constantine’s rule is the Edict ofMilan (313) which made the persecution of Christians illegal.

Question 43

Chrysostom

Answer 43

[4th century] He was given this name (meaning “Golden mouth”) after his death since he was such a great preacher. He was considered a great orator and exegete of Scripture and was made the Bishop of Constantinople. During this time he preached the truth of Scripture including many messages calling for repentance. He was banished from the city twice and eventually exiled to an obscure village near the Black Sea where he died.

Question 44

Jerome

Answer 44

[4-5 century] An ascetic and scholarly monk. While the private secretary of the bishop of Rome. His greatest achievement was translating the Scriptures into Latin from the original languages (Vulgate)

Question 45

Pelagius

Answer 45

[4-5 century] British monk who settled in Rome. An opponent of Augustine, he denied that human sin was inherited from Adam. Man, he said, was free to act righteously or sinfully. Death is not a consequence of sin. Adam did not introduce sin, but merely was a bad example. Thus, it is possible not to sin. Man is able to chose salvation, and is able to live for God without the agency of the Holy Spirit.

Question 46

Augustine

Answer 46

[4-5 century] One of the greatest and most influential leaders of the western church, Augustine lived during the disintegration of the Roman empire. In 391 he was ordained a priest and four years later was elevated to Bishop of Hippo. He battled Donatism and Pelagianism. His writings include The City of God and Confessions . He was a staunch advocate for the depravity of man and the primacy of grace in salvation. His works on sin, grace, and predestination laid the groundwork of the Reformation.

Question 47

Bernard of Clairvaux

Answer 47

[12 century] The last of the church fathers; mystic, monk and theologian. He was a strong spiritual reformer- the leader of the Cistercian movement. He was the major preacher of the Second Crusade and held to a full Augustinian view.

Question 48

Gregory the Great

Answer 48

[6 century] Considered one of the ablest men to occupy the position of Pope- some call him the father of the Medieval papacy. He became pope in 590 after previously serving many other leadership roles in the church. A strong civic and spiritual leader, he brought order to Rome and helped establish the idea that the Pope was the supreme authority in the church. Wrote The Pastoral Rule

Question 49

Francis of Assisi

Answer 49

[12-13 century] An innovator of the Roman system, he believed that the most serious problem in the church was worldliness and set to rebuild the church around the pattern of living like Jesus- an ascetic lifestyle, the life of poverty. In 1215, his order of Lesser Brothers received Papal approval.

Question 50

Anselm

Answer 50

[11 century] Archbishop of Canterbury, and known as the father of scholasticism, Anselm introduced a new theory of the atonement- the satisfaction theory- saying that man’s sin is a debt to God, not the devil and that Christ’s death alone has satisfied God’s offended sense of honor. He tried to make the content of Christian faith clear to reason, though insisted that faith must come first. Developed two proofs for the existence of God; the ontological and the cosmological.

Question 51

Aquinas

Answer 51

[13 century] Dominican monk-turned teacher, Aquinas was the author of the monumental Summa Theologica, the summary of the Roman Catholic Church. Scholasticism reached its pinnacle in Aquinas’ writings. Combining the greatest of the ancient Greek philosophers, particularly Aristotle, with Christian thought, Aquinas built a theological system which has been accepted as the basis for all Roman Catholic theological instruction today.

Question 52

Wycliffe

Answer 52

[14th century] .. .MornIng Star of the Reformation.

Translated the Bible into middle English. .Declared a heretic in 1382

Believed the Bible is the supreme authority, that the clergy should hold no propriety, that there was no basis for the doctrine of transubstantiation.

He was a fore-runner to the Reformation.

Question 53

Huss

Answer 53

[14th century]

Preached against the abuses of the Catholic Church, especially the morality of the priests, preaching of the Bible in the common language of the people (not Latin), opposed the sale . of indulgences, and Papal infallibility. He wanted the church to practice Communion “in both kinds”.

Excommunicated from the church and burned at the stake 1415.

Was a Bohemian priest who discovered Wycliffe’s religious writings. He compared the character of the Pope to that of Christ, discovering that the Pope fell quite short of the mark. Thus he was excommunicated, and burned at the stake.

Question 54

Tyndal

Answer 54

[ 15- 16th Century ]

An English Bible translator.

The 1611 King James Version is 90% the work of Tyndal

Was martyred for his opposition to the Pope in 1536.

Question 55

Luther

Answer 55

[15-16th Century]

Credited with being the father of the Reformation for his posting of the 95 thesis on the church door in Wittenburg, Germany 1517.

Excommunicated from the Catholic church when he refused to recant his positions after the Diet ofWorms.

An accomplished preacher, author, and hymn writer.

Father of the Lutheran church

Disagreed with Calvin on the issue of communion as he believed “consubstanciation.”

Question 56

Melanchthon

Answer 56

[ 15-16th century ]

An associate of Luther who brought a soft gentle nature to Luther’s very course mannerisms.

Wrote Loci Communes and “Augsburg Confession.”

Shifted toward Erasmus; theology of salvation and towards Calvin’s view of the Lord’s Supper (Christ not present for the sake of the bread, but for the sake of man).

Question 57

Zwingli

Answer 57

[15-16th century]

Swiss Reformer. Perhaps the third best known Reformers behind Calvin and Luther.

Disagreed with Luther over issue of whether or not we may do what the Bible does not forbid. Luther says we may, Zwingli says no.

Fought the “Radical Reformation” over the pace (he wanted slower) of the Reformation.

Believed that Christ’s presence in the Lord’s Supper was spiritual not physical.

Question 58

Calvin

Answer 58

[16th century]

Born French, he was “suddenly” converted sometime between 1532-34.

First published his Institutes in 1536.

Served as pastor in Geneva, expelled, and returned three years later.

Had a major effect on the organization and expression of what we call Reformed Theology.

Final edition of the Institutes published in 1559. Died in 1564.

Question 59

Knox

Answer 59

[16th century]

Bishop of Rochester. Upon the ascendancy ofMary Stuart as queen of Scots, he fled to the Continent where he was influenced by Calvin. In 1559, he returned to Scotland, and became the leader of the Scots Reformation. He helped draft the Scots Confession of Faith, and the Book ofDiscipline. He is remembered as the founder ofPresbyterianism and theories on liberty and government.

Question 60

Covenanters

Answer 60

[17th Century]

Name applied to those Scottish Presbyterians who signed the National Covenant and the Solemn League as well as to their followers. They resisted the Episcopal, “system of church government and the divine right of Kings (conflicting with the Stuart dynasty).

Question 61

Arminius

Answer 61

[16th Century]

A progressive Protestant Dutch theologian, Arminius was the author of a brand of theology known as Arminianism developed as a reaction against what he saw as the sternness of Calvinism. Arminius discarded the idea of unconditional predestination and taught that man had freedom to choose or reject salvation. He was the first to urge that the state tolerate all religions and emphasized the more practical aspects of faith instead of the creedal.

Question 62

Amyraut and the School of Saumur

Answer 62

[17th Century]

French theologian and preacher; developed the doctrine of “hypothetical universalism” known as Amyraldism. It taught that God wills all men to be saved, but because of inherited corruption, men reject him, so 2) God wills to save his elect by grace.

Question 63

Jonathan Edwards

Answer 63

[18th Century]

Theologian and pastor. Perhaps America’s best theologian remembered for stressing the inseparability of an intellectual Reformed faith from “experimental” religion. His writings include: “The Freedom of the Will” and “Sinners in the Hands of An Angry God.”

Question 64

Richard Baxter

Answer 64

[17th Century]

Puritan preacher. Read him for his evangelism, spiritual counsel and church renewal, but not for grace-centered living. He wrote The Reformed Pastor, A Call to The Unconverted, and A Christian Directory.

Question 65

Zinzendorf

Answer 65

[18th Century]

The founder of the Moravian Church. He was a German count whose importance lies in the creation of a missionary, service-oriented, ecumenical free church based upon a common experience of salvation and mutual love, and the emphasis upon deep, emotional religious expression which was intended to breathe new life into Protestantism.

Question 66

George Whitefield

Answer 66

[18th Century]

An English Calvinistic revivalist who was a major figure in the Great Awakening. Known for his eloquence and incredible speaking voice, he would preach to thousands gathered in the countryside. He was also influential in the founding of orphanages across the colonies. His eloquence and intelligence earned him the friendship of such notables as Benjamin Franklin.

Question 67

John Wesley

Answer 67

[18th Century]

An Arminian revivalist who, with the help of his brother Charles, founded Methodism as a movement within the Anglican Church. An itinerate preacher who was greatly influenced by the German Moravians, Wesley was one of the major forces behind the Evangelical revival in England. The Methodists stressed personal piety and devotion, as well as man’s free choice to receive God’s grace. Wesley emphasized the teaching of justification by faith alone and the pursuit of holiness to the point of “Christian perfection.”

Question 68

Marrow Controversy

Answer 68

[18th Century]

A controversy in the Church of Scotland over rival theological views of legalism and merit in contrast to God’s grace in Jesus Christ. The basis of the controversy was over a book, The Marrow of Modem Divinity, which advocated strongly Calvinistic doctrines and was held to favor antinomianism.

Question 69

William Carey

Answer 69

[18-19th Century]

Shoemaker turned missionary, Carey had a vision for the church to be involved in foreign missions. His was the first real attempt at foreign missions by the Protestant church. In 1793 the Baptist Missionary Society sent Carey to India. Stationed near Calcutta, he and his colleagues translated the Bible into many of the native languages, set up printing presses, and colleges. His life inspired other missionaries to take the gospel to the ends of the earth, adopting his motto: “Attempt great things for God; expect great things from God.”

Question 70

George Muller

Answer 70

[19th Century]

Greatly influenced by Pietism and known mainly for his orphanage work in Bristol England. When his second orphanage was built, he and his wife began to travel around the world preaching the gospel. He was known for his “faith mission” principle in which he received miraculous answers to prayer.

Question 71

Charles Spurgeon

Answer 71

[19th century]

Calvinistic Baptist preacher and avid reader of the Puritans, known fondly as “The Prince of Preachers.” In 1854 he became the pastor of a large congregation in London which built the Metropolitan Tabernacle to hold the crowds that came to hear him preach. He likely has more sermons published than any other preacher in history.

Question 72

Charles Hodge

Answer 72

[19th century]

The best-known proponent of the Princeton theology. A noted polemicist, Hodge is remembered for his rational defense of the Reformed faith, and for his defense of creationism against naturalistic evolution.

Question 73

B.B. Warfield

Answer 73

[19-20th century ]

One of the last of the great Princeton theologians, respected for his scholarly defense of Augustinian Calvinism. He is remembered for his intellectual defense of Biblical inerrancy in the face of Scheierrnacherian and Ritschlian liberalism.

Question 74

Charles Finney

Answer 74

[19th century]

After training to be a lawyer, Finney became a Presbyterian revivalist, and the father of the New School movement. He employed “New measures” of pragmatic techniques such as the anxious seat, to win souls. He was a key force in the Northern section of the Second Great Awakening of the first half of the 19th century.

Question 75

D. L. Moody

Answer 75

[19th century]

Dispensationalist revivalist, famous for his “sinking ship” theory: the world is lost, and Christians must endeavor only to save as many souls as they can before the end. Moody’s emphasis led to the rampant separationism of the fundamentalist movement.

Question 76

Discuss the controversy between modernism and fundamentalism. Be sure in your answer to identify and explain the significance of the Auburn Affirmation (who signed it? why? when?), the “five fundamentals,” Harry Emerson Fosdick, and J. Gresham Machen.

Answer 76

Riding on a high tide of German higher criticism, liberalism infected the American church in the late 19th century. The issue would come to the fore in the Presbyterian Church USA in 1923 when 150 ministers signed an affirmation denying the necessity of subscription to the five fundamentals for ordination to the gospel ministry in the PCUSA. While many other institutions had fallen under liberalism, Old Princeton remained the bastion of Calvinist orthodoxy and intellectual defense of the Christian faith. When re-structuring of her board was ordered by the General Assembly, an action which would surely change her character, many of her orthodox faculty, under the leadership of NT scholar J. Gresham Machen, left to form Westminster Theological Seminary in 1929. When Machen and his followers objected to their tithes towards missions going to non-Christian pluralistic missions work and established the Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions, they were defrocked by the PCUSA. They went on to found the Orthodox Presbyterian Church in 1936. Soon finding that they had been bound only by a common enemy, Machen and his fellow Old School Calvinists, and the dispensationalists parted ways. Thus, under the leadership of Carl McIntire, the Bible Presbyterian Church was formed out of the dispensational group.

[Longer version]
In the early 1900’s the PCUSA found itself in a new war. Urbanization and industrialization in the North changed the cultural climate, inviting new intellectual trends such as: Darwinism, higher criticism, and Biblical skepticism into the church. Once again the Old and New controversies arose in the 1890’s when the moderates attempted to revise the Westminster Confession of Faith. These attempts were initially rejected, but in 1903 the General Assembly adopted statements into the confession on “missions and on the Holy Spirit, an affirmation of God’s love for all humanity, and the assurance of salvation for those dying in infancy.” This marked a gradual move from traditional Old School orthodoxy. The trend continued over the next few years until the “General Assembly of 1910, responded to complaints about doctrinal laxity on the part of three Union Seminary graduates…” The assembly proposed and adopted five “essential and necessary” doctrines. These included commitments to the inerrancy of the Bible, the Virgin birth of Christ, the substitutionary atonement, the bodily resurrection of Christ, and the authenticity of miracles. These “famous five points” paralled the “Five points of Fundamentalism” and became points of debate between the Fundamentalists and the Modernists.

The Essentials were adopted and reaffirmed in 1916 and again in 1923.  Yet growing opposition was forming.  In 1922, Harry Fosdick forced the issue with his sermon, Shall the Fundamentalists Win?  In this sermon he argued for the validity of liberal Christianity.  It became the object of many responses from the pens of Conservative Presbyterians.  In particular, J. Gresham Machen of  Princeton Theological Seminary.  He responded by publishing the book, Christianity and Liberalism in which he powerfully argued that “liberalism, despite its traditional phraseology, was not some harmless variant of Christianity; it was, in fact, not Christinaity. And all but a new and different religion.”  

The modernists responded in 1924 by signing the Auburn Affirmation which urged tolerance and affirmed alternative explanations of Christian doctrines.  The debate continued into the General Assembly of 1926 when the assembly actually nullified the five essentials and brought the denomination into conformity with the Auburn Affirmation.  Thus dealing a tragic blow to orthodoxy. 

Continued movement away from the conservative position resulted in the 1929 reorganization of Princeton Seminary ( a bastion of Old School thought).  This reorganization denied Machen the chair of Apologetics and Ethics resulting in his withdrawal from the seminary and the formation of Westminster Theological Seminary.  Machen and seven other Princeton faculty started Westminster in order to continue the historic Presbyterian orthodoxy. His fight against liberalism continued in 1933 when he formed the conservative Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions “to promote truly Biblical and truly Presbyterian mission work.”   This act led to the suspension of his ordination in 1935.
The church was once again at a point of schism and on June 11, 1936, Machen and his fellow conservatives formed the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC).

Question 77

Trace the historical roots of the RPC. From which major branch of Presbyterianism did the RPC come? Why is the RPCES important in PCA history? Be sure in your answer to identify and explain the significance of the Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions, J. Oliver Buswell, Robert Rayburn, Francis Schaeffer, and Carl Mclntire.

Answer 77

Conservatives in the PCUSA formed their own denomination, the Presbyterian Church of America (1936), because of the modernists’ movement in the PCUSA- however, when the common cause of battling the modernists grew less intense because of the successful formation of the new denomination, difference began to surface. These differences were along the lines of eschatology and the use/nonuse of alcoholic beverages. This difference split the denomination. The group favoring pre-millennialism and complete abstinence from alcohol and tobacco formed the Bible Presbyterian Church in 1938. The Presbyterian Church of America renamed itself a year later to the Orthodox Presbyterian Church. The Bible Presbyterian Church split in 1956, once under Carl McIntrye who was resolved to keep mission boards and seminaries out from under denominational control. This split resulted in the Bible Presbyterian Church, Collinswood synod (McIntyre’s group), and the Bible Presbyterian Church, Columbus synod. The Columbus synod changed its name to the Evangelical Presbyterian Church and soon merged with the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America, General synod to form the Reformed Presbyterian Church Evangelical Synod (RPCES). Thus, the RPCES came out of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, Northern Presbyterian Church.

Question 78

Trace the history of the formation of the PCA. When, where and why did the PCA begin? From what major branch of Presbyterianism did early members of the PCA come? Be sure in your answer to identify and explain the significance of the Presbyterian Evangelistic Fellowship, Concerned Presbyterians, the Presbyterian Journal, Morton H. Smith, W. Jack Williamson, Ken Keyes, and G. Aiken Taylor.

Answer 78

The Presbyterian Church in America was formed in 1973, under the name The National Presbyterian Church. The church was formed as a continuing biblical Presbyterian denomination, out of the Presbyterian Church in the United States (the Southern Presbyterian Church). Due to the rampant liberalism, especially in the form of Barthianism, in that denomination, several organizations had been formed to preserve the gospel witness in that denomination. These included the Concerned Presbyterians, Presbyterian Churchmen United, the Presbyterian Evangelistic Fellowship, and Reformed Theological Seminary. When things had progressed to such a stage where a majority of these men came to a conviction that the PCUS was no longer a viable organ of gospel witness, they organized to form the PCA. The first General Assembly was held at Briarwood Church in Birmingham Alabama, in 1973. Col. Jack Williamson was elected moderator and Morton Smith was elected Stated Clerk. Two other denominations were asked to merge with the PCA: The OPC and the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod(RPC, ES). The RPCES accepted, and in 1982 joined and was received by the PCA bringing with them Covenant College and Covenant Theological Seminary. Today the PCA continues to offer itself as a biblically-based denomination: True to the Scriptures, the Reformed faith, and obedient to the Great Commission.

[LONGER]
The Fundamentalist vs. Modernist debate did not immediately infect the Southern church (PCUS). However, she was not fortunate enough to be immune to the liberalism that had infected the PCUSA. Dr. Ernest Thompson of Richmond Theological Seminary formed a secret society called the Fellowship of St. James. According to Kenneth Keyes, the purpose of this fellowship was “to have the church abandon its belief in the integrity and authority of the Bible, to water down the Westminster Confession of Faith, and to participate more actively in the National Council of Churches… however, the primary goal was to unite [the PCUS] with the far more liberal and three times larger Presbyterian Church in the United States of America- the Northern Church.” This fellowship set out to accomplish its goal by trying to elect its members to key leadership positions in the church. Slowly the effects of St. James were being felt.
In Kornegay’s Living History of the Presbyterian Church in America, Kornegay quotes several men lamenting the liberal tendencies they were witnessing. Dr. Baird lamented that his presbytery “received a man who would not affirm the virgin birth.” Rev. Kennedy Smartt recalled a “blatant universalist” being accepted into his presbytery. And Dr. Richards remembered an overture expressing plenary verbal inspiration of Scripture being voted down 3 to 1 by ministers in his presbytery.
The Fundamentalist- Modernist Controversy had drifted South.

In an attempt to protect and preserve the conservative views, several organizations were formed. The first was the Presbyterian Journal. It first appeared in 1942 and was founded by Dr. Nelson Bell and Dr. Henry Dendy. This journal was dedicated to “statement, defense, and propagation of the Gospel along with reform within the Southern Church.” Joining the effort was the Presbyterian Evangelistic Fellowship (PEF). This group was formed in 1959 by Rev. William E. Hill in order to pray for and promote “Biblical evangelism and Spiritual revival in the Presbyterian Church US and the church universal” and quickly became the mission agency for conservative churches within the PCUS. Later, a grassroots organization called Concerned Presbyterians, Incorporated was formed in 1965. According to Jack Williamson, the purpose of this group was in “changing the direction of the church; [they] didn’t set out to separate.” Four years later, in 1969, Presbyterian Churchmen United was formed by the conservative pastors in the PCUS to form an “organization for mutual support and joint action.” This group set up doctrinal statements and held rallies in order to “keep their church true to its historic commitments [and to] protest the liberal and radical extremes in church life…”
These organizations gave both laymen and clergy a network of like-minded Presbyterians for support and organization for a future denomination.
“And soon the night of weeping shall be the morn of song…”
It was becoming evident that the conservatives were losing ground and that a merger between the Southern Church and Northern Church was inevitable. Motivated by the desire for a “Presbyterian Chruch which will be true to His word” the conservatives called representatives from the four agencies discussed above in 1971 to form a steering committee to begin the development of a “Presbyterian church loyal to the Scriptures and Reformed faith.” Two years later “260 churches with approximately 40,000 members withdrew from the PCUS and in December of 1973, the First General Assembly of what is now the Presbyterian Church in America met at Briarwood Presbyterian Church in Birmingham, Alabama.
The PCA grew in 1982 with what has been called the Joining and Receiving of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod (RPCES). The RPCES was formed in 1965 when the Evangelical Presbyterian Chruch (EPC) and the Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America, General Synod merged. These two Presbyterian bodies have different historical roots. The RPCNA,GS “goes back to the time of the second reformation in Scotland.” They became the RPCNA,GS in 1833 when they separated from the Reformed Presbyterians over the issue of participating in civil magistrates.
The EPC, however, has a more familiar history. During the Modernist conflict, Machen left the Old PCUSA to form the OPC. Some who followed Machen quickly became concerned over Millenium views and Christian liberty practices by some in the OPC. Under the leadership of Carl McIntire, many left the OPC in 1938 to form the Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC). Out of this group formed the EPC in 1957 when McIntires’s heavy-handed leadership caused factions within the BPC. This new EPC controlled both Covenant College and Covenant Theological Seminary which became the national college and seminary in 1982 with the Joining and Receiving.
Though the PCA is officially a rather young denomination, it has a rich history stretching all the way back to the Reformation of the sixteenth century. This history is one that has consistently fought for purity both in doctrine and practice. The same issues have resurfaced over and over again throughout the life of the Presbyterian church. Especially the question of loose and strict subscription to the Westminster Standards. What will the next issue be and how will this church of Jesus Christ respond? By God’s grace may she persevere.

Question 79

What are some distinctives of the PCA?

Answer 79

1. God alone is Lord of the conscience and has left it free from any doctrines or commandments of men which are in any respect contrary to the Word of God, or which in regard to matters of faith and worship, are not governed by the Word of God. Therefore, the rights of private judgment in all matters that respect religion are universal and inalienable. No religious constitution should be supported by the civil power further than may be necessary for protection and security equal and common to all.
2. In perfect consistency with the above principle, every Christian Church, or union or association of particular churches, is entitled to declare the terms of admission into its communion and the qualification of its ministers and members, as well as the whole system of its internal government which Christ has appointed. In the exercise of this right it may, notwithstanding, err in making the terms of communion either too lax or too narrow; yet even in this case, it does not infringe upon the liberty or the rights of others, but only makes an improper use of its own.
3. Our blessed Savior, for the edification of the visible Church, which is his body, has appointed officers not only to preach the Gospel and administer the Sacraments but also to exercise discipline for the preservation both of truth and duty. It is incumbent upon these officers and upon the whole church in whose name they act, to censure or cast out the erroneous and scandalous, observing in all cases the rules contained in the Word of God.
4. Godliness is founded on truth. A test of truth is its power to promote holiness according to our savior’s rule, by their fruits you shall know them (Matthew 7.20) No opinion can be more pernicious or more absurd than that which brings truth and falsehood upon the same level.
5. While, under the conviction of the above principle, it is necessary to make every effective provision that all who are admitted as teachers be sound in the faith, there are truths and forms with respect to which men of good character and principles may differ. In all these, it is the duty both of private Christians and societies to exercise mutual forbearance toward each other.
6. Though the character, qualifications, and authority of church officers are laid down in the Holy Scriptures, as well as the proper method of officer investiture, the power to elect persons to the exercise of authority in any particular society, resides in that society.
7. All church power whether exercised by the body in general, or by representation, is only ministerial and declarative since the Holy Scriptures are the only rule of faith and practice. No church judiciary may make laws to bind the conscience. All church courts may err, through human frailty, yet it rests upon them to uphold the laws of Scripture though this obligation be lodged with fallible men.
8. Since ecclesiastical discipline must be purely moral or spiritual in its object, and not attended with any civil effects, it can derive no force whatever, but from its own justice, the approbation of an impartial public, and the countenance and blessing of the great Head of the Church.