Chp 1 Flashcards
Two goals of behavior analysis
1) To predict behavior
2) To discover casual variables that may be used to positively influence behavior
Characteristics of willed actions
1) No triggering event
2) Goal directed
Behavior
An individual living organisms activities public or private
Public vs Private Behavior
public (everyone can observe it happening
private (you are the only person who can observe it)
What does it mean to say that behavior is determined?
It means that behavior has a cause or multiple causes
What does empirical mean – as in, “empirical evidence
Empirical: Behavior analysts require empirical evidence to support any claim about behavior.
By “empirical” we mean that the evidence must be observable.
What is a mentalistic explanation of behavior?
explanation based on dispositional attributions
What do people see and then say “the behavior is willed”?
no triggering event and a goal
What do people see and then say “the behavior is not willed”?
triggering event
3 Problems with the Theory that a Mental Decision-Maker wills Behavior into Motion
- choice is behavior
- choice is determined
- spurious reason-making
What was the important finding of the Libet studies?
- a neural response precedes conscious willing
- these findings fail to support the Theory of Will
Stimulus
something that you can see, hear, smell, taste, or feel
Falsifiable Hypothesis
predictions that are made and tested
when these predictions are confirmed, they strengthen our confidence in the theories upon which they are based, when the predictions are falsified, the theory is abandoned.
Reification
to treat an abstraction (or a heuristic) as though it were a thing
when we explain behavior by pointing to reifications (like sleazy or brilliant) we are using circular logic
Why is replication important in behavioral science?
the most important way to evaluate if scientific discoveries are true, confidence is more robustly established
Variable
things that are not the same each time
Independent Variable
a publicly observable change, controlled by the experimenter, which is anticipated to influence behavior in a specific way
Dependent Variable
the objectively measured target behavior
Functional Variable
includes all of those things that, if changed, will systematically and reliably influence behavior
What is the difference between an independent and dependent variable?
the independent variable is changed by the experimenter and the dependent variable is measured
3 Components of a Behavioral Experiment
- the dependent variable is behavior
- falsifiable hypothesis
- manipulation of the independent variable
What does correlation does not imply causation mean?
just because two things co-occur does not mean that one of those things causes the other. Correlations tell us nothing about causation. Only an experiment can tell us if a functional relation exists.
Direct-Observation
behavior is recorded as the behavior occurs, or a lasting product of the behavior is recorded at a later time
Self-Reports
asks the individual to recall if they have engaged in the behavior
What are the benefits of direct observation?
- doesn’t rely on memory
- easier to ensure data collection is unbiased
What are the drawbacks of self-report?
- people are not always truthful
- social desirability bias
- good subject effect
- incentives
- recalling our own behavior is hard
Behavioral Definition
precise specification of the topography of the target behavior, allowing observers to reliably identify instances and non-instances
Why is a behavioral definition important?
- good behavioral definitions make data collection objective, that is, not influenced by personal judgments, prejudice, or bias
- accurately measure when behavior has occurred
What are the characteristics of a good behavioral definition?
- very specific; leaving no room for observer bias, prejudice, etc. to impact the data being collected.
- focused on behavior; no room for heuristics like “sleazy” or “brilliant”
Social Validity
the consumer of the intervention, or an expert in the field indicates that the behavioral definition accurately reflects the behavior of interest
Why is social validity important in behavioral analysis?
if the intervention is successful, then the consumers/experts will be satisfied with the change in this behavior
Inter-observer Agreement IOA
the extent to which two independent observers’ data are the same after having directly observed the same behavior at the same time
Why is IOA (Inter-Observer Agreement) important?
if the behavioral definition is not objective enough that two independent observers can almost always agree on instances and non-instances of the behavior, then IOA will be unacceptably low. When IOA is low, the behavioral definition needs to be refined
How do you calculate IOA (Inter-Observer Agreement)?
IOA = Agreements/ (Agreements + Disagreements) x 100
What are the four dimensions along which behavior can be measured?
frequency, latency, duration, magnitude
Frequency
response count divided by time or opportunity to respond
Latency
the interval of time between the opportunity to respond and the response itself
Duration
the interval of time between the start and the end of the behavior
Magnitude
the force or intensity of a behavior
Outcome Recording
record the distinct, observable, and lasting product(s) of behavior, instead of the behavior itself
Event Recording
each instance of behavior is recorded at the moment it occurs
Whole-Interval Recording
a direct-observation method used to estimate how frequently behavior occurs. Observers record whether or not the behavior occurs throughout each in a series of contiguous intervals
Partial-Interval Recording
a direct-observation method used to estimate how frequently behavior occurs. Observers record whether or not the behavior occurs during any portion of each in a series of contiguous intervals
Duration Recording
when measuring either the latency or duration of a target behavior
Group Experimental Designs
evaluate if the behavior of a treatment group (independent variable ON) is statistically significantly different from that of a control group (independent variable OFF). If so, then the difference is attributed to the independent variable
Single-Subject Experimental Designs
expose individuals to baseline (independent variable OFF) and experimental (independent variable ON) phases to determine if the independent variable systematically and reliably changes behavior
Internal Validity
when an experiment provides clear evidence that a functional relation exists between the independent variable and behavior change
Confounds
variables that are influencing behavior within an experiment, but are not controlled by the researcher
4 Single-Subject Designs
comparison, reversal, alternating-treatments, and multiple-baseline design
Comparison (AB) Design
arranges a baseline (A) phase (independent variable OFF) and an experimental (B) phase (independent variable ON)
Reversal (ABA) Design
the individual’s behavior is evaluated in repeatedly alternating baseline (A) and experimental (B) phases
Alternating-Treatments Design
the independent variable(s) is turned ON and OFF rapidly to evaluate if this systematically and repeatedly changes behavior
Multiple-Baseline Design
evaluates the functional relation between an independent variable and behavior by conducting a series of time-staggered A-B comparisons either across behaviors, across situations, or across individuals
What are the defining features of a single-subject experimental design?
expose individuals to baseline (independent variable OFF) and experimental (independent variable ON) phases to determine if the independent variable systematically and reliably changes behavior
3 Kinds of Replication
- within-individual
- across-individual
- across labs or clinics
Visual Analysis
involves looking at a graph of time-series single-subject behavior to evaluate if a convincing change occurred when the independent variable was introduced/removed
Habituation
gradual reduction in responding following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus
Phylogenetically Selected Behaviors
behaviors we inherit them from our parents, who inherited them from their parents, and so on
What is the stance of behavior analysts on the nature vs. nurture debate?
nature (phylogenetic influences) AND nurture (learning)
Unconditioned Stimulus
a stimulus that elicits a response without any prior learning (for example, a biscuit in the dog’s mouth elicits salivation)
Unconditioned Response
the response (in this case, salivating) reliably elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (US)
Conditioned Stimulus
a formerly neutral stimulus that now evokes a conditioned response. Referred to as “conditioned” because the ability of the stimulus to evoke the response requires new learning (or “conditioning”)
Conditioned Response
the response evoked by the conditioned stimulus (CS). This may not be the same as the unconditioned response (UR)
Who were John Watson and Rosalie Rayner?
used Pavlovian fear conditioning to produce a phobia of white rats in a human infant named Albert
What were Watson & Rayner’s contributions to our understanding of Pavlovian learning?
- generalization
- experiences in infancy affect developmental
1st Thing Learned in Pavlovian Conditioning
the conditioned stimulus (CS) signals a delay reduction to the unconditioned stimulus (US)
2nd Thing Learned in Pavlovian Conditioning
the conditioned stimulus (CS) signals when the unconditioned stimulus (US) is coming
3rd Thing Learned in Pavlovian Conditioning
the conditioned stimulus (CS) signals which unconditioned stimulus (US) is coming
4 Principles of Effective Pavlovian Conditioning
- use an important unconditioned stimulus (US)
- use a salient conditioned stimulus (CS)
- use a conditioned stimulus (CS) that signals a large delay reduction to the unconditioned stimulus (US)
- make sure the conditioned stimulus (CS) is not redundant
What is the relation between the delay-reduction ratio and how quickly individuals acquire Pavlovian learning?
when the CS signals a small delay reduction, it takes many more trials before Pavlovian learning is acquired. As the delay-reduction ratio increases, fewer trials are required, that is, learning happens faster
Delay-Reduction Ratio (calculation)
US to US interval/CS to US interval
Generalization
conditioned responding to a novel stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus (CS)
Pavlovian Extinction
the procedure if repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US), the effect of which is a reduction or elimination of the conditioned stimulus’ (CS) ability to evoke the conditioned response (CR)
Who is Mary Cover Jones?
demonstrated that Pavlovian extinction could be used therapeutically to reduce a fear of furry animals in a preschooler named Peter
What was Mary Cover Jones’ contribution to our understanding of Pavlovian learning?
pavlovian-extinction-based therapy is known as graduated exposure therapy, and it remains the most effective intervention for reducing human phobias
Graduated Exposure Therapy
the client is gradually exposed to successively stronger approximations of the conditioned stimulus (CS). Before each new CS-approximation of presented, steps are taken to reduce/eliminate any fear evoked by the prior CS-approximation
Spontaneous Recovery
increase in conditioned responding following the passage of time since Pavlovian extinction
Taste-Aversion Learning
one-trial learning; the CS (taste) acquires its ability to evoke the CR (revulsion) after a single encounter with the CS→US (illness) relation
