China to Modern Issues Test Review 2024

Question 1

Deng Xiaoping

Answer 1

A member of Mao’s CCP, who served as General Secretary and Vice Premier, and suffered the consequences of the Cultural Revolution, as he had to labor in factories and reject criticisms of Mao. He became the new leader of China after Mao Zedong’s death, where he introduced the four modernizations, special economic zones, and pragmatic forms of politics and government.

Question 2

Four Modernizations

Answer 2

Agriculture – Instead of having peasants only work on collective farms, the government allowed each family to own a small plot of land that they could use however they wanted – whatever they grew could be sold to local markets for a profit. Also, they increased rural industry so that farming areas could have their own factories to mechanize farming and manufacture fertilizer, chemicals, and tools.
Industry – German and Japanese steel companies would lease rent/land from the government to build steel processing plants. China also negotiated with billions of dollars in loans from British banks to start drilling for oil and building oil refineries and began building tourist sites, hotels and more airports to increase tourism so foreigners would visit and spend their money in China.
Science and Technology – Deng arranged for thousands of Chinese students to go to industrialized nations (40% of them went to the United States) to study science, engineering, medicine, and computer technology and then return to China to help improve their nation. When they returned, China paid them to train like other Chinese people in local areas to help them improve their nation. When they returned, China paid them to train other Chinese people in local areas to help them become better at what they did.
Military – The government wanted to update its military and spend more money on arms and technology. Using money earned from tourism, taxes on foreign business in China, and selling extra products created by the increases in industry and agriculture, China was able to slowly expand its influence.

Question 3

Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

Answer 3

In 1980, Deng designated four areas—Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou, and Xiamen—as SEZs. These zones were given preferential policies such as tax incentives, greater autonomy in economic decisions, and relaxed regulatory frameworks to attract foreign investment and technology. Shenzhen, adjacent to Hong Kong, transformed from a small fishing village into a bustling metropolis, becoming a model of economic dynamism and a symbol of the success of Deng’s reforms. These policies encouraged foreign companies to invest in China, bringing in capital, technology, and management expertise. Joint ventures and wholly foreign-owned enterprises became increasingly common, and rapid economic growth occurred.

Question 4

Tiananmen Square

Answer 4

Chinese students who were sent to foreign universities under the four modernizations would be exposed to the democratic societies in western Europe and the U.S. In the spring of 1989, a pro-democracy movement, driven by students and intellectuals, gathered in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square, calling for political reform, greater freedom, and an end to corruption. The Chinese government, under Deng’s leadership, declared martial law and used military force to clear the square, resulting in significant casualties. The crackdown was widely condemned internationally but reinforced the CCP’s determination to maintain political control.

Question 5

One child policy

Answer 5

The main objective was to reduce the birth rate and slow population growth to alleviate social, economic, and environmental pressures. The Chinese government believed that a smaller population would improve the standard of living and facilitate economic reform and modernization efforts. The policy was enforced through a combination of incentives for compliance (such as financial rewards and preferential access to housing and education) and penalties for violations (including fines, loss of employment, and difficulty accessing social services). Local officials were responsible for implementing the policy and were often held accountable for meeting population control targets. The policy led to significant social consequences, including a gender imbalance due to a cultural preference for male children, resulting in sex-selective abortions and female infanticide. There were reports of forced abortions and sterilizations, particularly in the early years of the policy. The policy also led to the phenomenon of “little emperors,” where the single children received undivided attention and resources from their parents and grandparents. In 2015, the policy was officially replaced by a Two-Child Policy, allowing all couples to have two children. In 2021, the government further relaxed the policy, allowing families to have up to three children in response to the declining birth rate and aging population.

Question 6

Hu Yaobang

Answer 6

Hu Yaobang was a prominent Chinese politician who served as the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party from 1980 to 1987. Known for his progressive and reformist stance, he advocated for political and economic reforms aimed at modernizing China and improving living standards. His tenure saw efforts to promote openness and transparency within the party, but he faced opposition from conservative elements. Forced to resign in 1987 following student-led protests for democratic reforms, known as the “Hu Yaobang Incident,” he remained influential until his death in 1989. Hu’s legacy remains complex, with some praising his efforts for reform while others criticize his role in social upheaval. Nonetheless, his contributions to Chinese politics continue to shape debates about the country’s development.

Question 7

Li Peng

Answer 7

Li Peng was a Chinese politician who held significant positions within the Chinese government, notably serving as the Premier of the People’s Republic of China from 1987 to 1998. Born in 1928, Li Peng was a prominent figure during the era of Chinese economic reforms initiated by Deng Xiaoping. He played a key role in implementing economic policies that facilitated China’s rapid economic growth and modernization. However, Li Peng’s tenure as Premier was also marked by controversy, particularly his handling of the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989. He was widely criticized for his role in the government’s decision to declare martial law and crackdown on the pro-democracy demonstrators, resulting in numerous deaths and injuries. Despite his controversial legacy, Li Peng remained influential in Chinese politics until his retirement in the late 1990s. He passed away in 2019 at the age of 90.

Question 8

Ping Pong Diplomacy

Answer 8

Ping Pong Diplomacy refers to the exchange of table tennis players between the United States and China in the early 1970s, which played a pivotal role in thawing the icy relations between the two nations as a result of the Cold War and Korean War, and paved the way for President Richard Nixon’s historic visit to China in 1972. Sparked by a friendly encounter at the 1971 World Table Tennis Championships in Japan, the Chinese government invited the U.S. team to visit China, marking the first significant interaction between the countries since 1949. This event led to secret diplomatic talks, culminating in Nixon’s visit and the signing of the Shanghai Communiqué, which began the process of normalizing Sino-American relations.

Question 9

Mikhail Gorbachev

Answer 9

Mikhail Gorbachev is a prominent political figure who served as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and former president of the USSR from 1985 to 1991. He is widely recognized for his role in spearheading reforms that led to the transformation of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War.

Question 10

Perestroika

Answer 10

The policy or practice of restructuring or reforming the economic and political system in the former Soviet Union is known as “perestroika.” Perestroika was introduced by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s as part of a broader reform agenda aimed at modernizing and revitalizing the Soviet economy and political system. It involved decentralizing economic planning, allowing greater autonomy for enterprises, encouraging private ownership and entrepreneurship, and promoting transparency and openness in governance. Perestroika represented a significant departure from the centralized planning and rigid command economy that characterized the Soviet Union for decades, and it was intended to address systemic inefficiencies and stimulate economic growth.

Question 11

Glasnost

Answer 11

Glasnost, a term meaning “openness” or “publicity” in Russian, was a policy introduced by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s as part of his broader reform agenda. Glasnost aimed to increase transparency in the Soviet government and society by allowing greater freedom of speech, press, and expression.

Question 12

Detente

Answer 12

Détente was a period in which Cold War tensions eased between the Soviet Union and the United States from the late 1960s to 1979. Détente was characterized by warm personal relationships between US president Richard Nixon (1969–1974) and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev (1964–1982). Wanted to reduce their spending and limit the accumulation of additional weapons between them. Nixon would also establish friendly connections between China and Us to ease tensions after the Vietnam war for communist China, and China responded by opening the door to the USA via ping pong diplomacy, inviting the US to be in China’s ping pong competition.

Question 13

SALT I

Answer 13

Strategic Arms limitation talks, Anti ballistic missile treaty to limit the number of arms each country could have.

Question 14

SALT II

Answer 14

The treaty aimed to build upon the earlier SALT I agreements and further stabilize the nuclear arsenals of both nations. The negotiations resulted in the signing of the SALT II treaty in 1979, although it was never ratified by the United States Senate due to concerns about Soviet compliance and geopolitical development.

Question 15

Ronald Reagan

Answer 15

Ronald Reagan, the 40th President of the United States, played a pivotal role in the Cold War and in shaping US relations with China. A staunch anti-communist, Reagan adopted a hardline approach against the Soviet Union, famously labeling it the “Evil Empire.” He significantly increased defense spending, initiated the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), and supported anti-communist insurgencies globally through the Reagan Doctrine. Despite his aggressive stance, Reagan engaged in arms control negotiations, culminating in the 1987 INF Treaty, which contributed to the eventual end of the Cold War alongside Soviet reforms under Mikhail Gorbachev. In terms of US-China relations, Reagan continued the policy of strategic engagement initiated by Nixon, viewing China as a counterbalance to Soviet power. He navigated the delicate US-China-Taiwan relationship by signing the Third Communiqué while providing Taiwan with the “Six Assurances.” Reagan promoted trade and economic relations with China, facilitating its economic reforms, but also raised concerns about human rights abuses. His presidency was marked by a complex interplay of strategic, economic, and human rights considerations that significantly influenced the global geopolitical landscape.

Question 16

Fall of Berlin wall

Answer 16

he Berlin Wall, built by East Germany in 1961, divided Berlin into East and West sections during the Cold War, dividing communist East Germany and capitalist West Germany. Included a fortified structure with barbed wire, guard towers, and a no-man’s land. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 marked the end of the Cold War division in Europe. Dissatisfaction with authoritarian regimes in Eastern Europe, including East Germany, led to widespread protests fueled by a desire for political reform and democratization. The Soviet Union, facing its own internal challenges, was less inclined to intervene forcefully to stop protests. In response to mounting pressure, the East German government eased travel restrictions, allowing citizens to freely travel to the West. This unexpected decision triggered mass celebrations and led to the rapid collapse of the Berlin Wall. While intended to simply ease tensions, the move ultimately resulted in the reunification of Germany and the end of the Cold War era.

Question 17

Lech Walesa

Answer 17

Lech Wałęsa is a Polish politician and labor activist. He worked as an electrician at the Gdańsk Shipyard, where he became involved in labor activism in the 1970s. In 1980, Wałęsa emerged as a leader of the strike at the Gdańsk Shipyard, which led to the establishment of the Solidarity trade union—the first independent labor union in the Soviet bloc. Wałęsa played a central role in negotiating with the Polish government for workers’ rights and political reforms. In 1981, amid growing tensions, the Polish government declared martial law and banned Solidarity. Following the collapse of communism in Poland in 1989, Solidarity was legalized, and free elections were held. Lech Wałęsa became Poland’s first freely elected president in 1990, serving until 1995. During his presidency, Wałęsa implemented economic reforms and played a key role in Poland’s transition to democracy and a market economy.

Question 18

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

Answer 18

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 marked a significant event in Cold War geopolitics. Motivated by concerns over the spread of Islamic fundamentalism and the potential loss of a communist ally, the Soviet Union intervened militarily to support the pro-communist government in Kabul. The invasion sparked a decade-long conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, insurgency, and significant human suffering. Afghan resistance fighters, known as the mujahideen, received support from the United States and other Western powers, who saw the conflict as an opportunity to weaken the Soviet Union. The war had far-reaching consequences, contributing to the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union and shaping the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East and Central Asia.

Question 19

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Indira Gandhi

Answer 19

Indira Gandhi, the daughter of India’s first post-independence Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, became a significant political figure in India. She served as Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 to 1984. Under her leadership, India underwent the “green revolution,” which aimed to increase agricultural yields. However, while these policies benefited wealthier farmers, they deepened poverty among peasant farmers. Facing challenges such as overpopulation and ethics conflicts, Gandhi took drastic measures, including declaring a national emergency from 1975 to 1977, which suspended democratic processes. Despite using emergency powers to promote social reforms like birth control, her repressive policies, including involuntary sterilization, led to widespread discontent and riots. When elections were held in 1977, Indians voted against her due to her disregard for democratic principles and harsh birth control measures. Despite this setback, Gandhi returned to power in 1980 but faced difficulties in maintaining unity amid religious and ethnic tensions, notably with the Sikh community in the Punjab region. Her decision to order the army to attack the sacred Golden Temple in Amritsar, resulting in the deaths of Sikh extremists, led to her assassination by two Sikh bodyguards in 1984.

Question 20

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Iranian Revolution

Answer 20

The Iranian Revolution of 1979 was a pivotal moment in history that stemmed from decades of discontent with the regime of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. His reign introduced education, social and economic reforms, such as giving women the right to vote, and implementing western dress. This angered Islamic fundamentalists as well as Shia Muslims and leftist politicians. President Jimmy Carter of the US visited Iran to congratulate them on their modernization, which was the breaking point for fundamentalists. The revolution, spearheaded by Ayatollah Khomeini, sought to replace the Shah’s secular rule with an Islamic theocracy. Iran reverted to traditional Islamic values and adopted a theocratic system of governance. This shift had significant ramifications, including the reversal of human rights advancements and the eruption of the Iran-Iraq War due to border disputes. The revolution also sparked a power struggle within Iran, between conservative clerics and reform-minded factions, which continues to shape the country’s political landscape today. Additionally, Iran’s pursuit of nuclear technology has heightened international tensions, particularly with the United States and European Union, further complicating its relations with the global community.

Question 21

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Indira Gandhi

Answer 21

Indira Gandhi, the daughter of India’s first post-independence Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, became a significant political figure in India. She served as Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 to 1984. Under her leadership, India underwent the “green revolution,” which aimed to increase agricultural yields. However, while these policies benefited wealthier farmers, they deepened poverty among peasant farmers. Facing challenges such as overpopulation and sectarian conflicts, Gandhi took drastic measures, including declaring a national emergency from 1975 to 1977, which suspended democratic processes. Despite using emergency powers to promote social reforms like birth control, her repressive policies, including involuntary sterilization, led to widespread discontent and riots. When elections were held in 1977, Indians voted against her due to her disregard for democratic principles and harsh birth control measures. Despite this setback, Gandhi returned to power in 1980 but faced difficulties in maintaining unity amid religious and ethnic tensions, notably with the Sikh community in the Punjab region. Her decision to order the army to attack the sacred Golden Temple in Amritsar, resulting in the deaths of Sikh extremists, led to her assassination by two Sikh bodyguards in 1984.

Question 22

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Saddam Hussein

Answer 22

addam Hussein was the President of Iraq from 1979 until his overthrow in 2003 during the United States-led invasion of Iraq. His regime was characterized by authoritarian rule, political repression, and human rights abuses. Saddam’s aggressive foreign policy led to the invasion of Iran in 1980, sparking the Iran-Iraq War, which lasted for eight years and resulted in immense casualties on both sides. In 1990, Saddam’s forces invaded Kuwait, leading to the Gulf War, in which a U.S.-led coalition expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Saddam’s regime was marked by brutality, including the suppression of political dissent and the use of chemical weapons against civilians. His reign ended with the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, which resulted in his capture, trial, and eventual execution for crimes against humanity.

Question 23

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Operation Iraqi Freedom

Answer 23

Operation Iraqi Freedom was a significant military campaign launched by a coalition of countries, led primarily by the United States, in 2003. The primary objective was to overthrow Saddam Hussein’s government in Iraq and establish a democratic government in its place. The operation involved a combination of aerial bombardment and ground invasion, with the initial phase known as “shock and awe” aimed at quickly incapacitating Iraq’s military and government infrastructure. However, following the fall of Saddam Hussein’s regime, the coalition faced considerable challenges in stabilizing Iraq and establishing a functioning democratic government, marking the beginning of a tumultuous period in Iraq’s history.

Question 24

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Iran-Iraq War

Answer 24

The Iran-Iraq War was a prolonged conflict that lasted from September 1980 to August 1988, making it one of the longest conventional wars of the 20th century. The war erupted when Iraq, led by President Saddam Hussein, invaded Iran, led by Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, following border disputes and longstanding tensions between the two countries. The conflict was fueled by a complex mix of political, ideological, and religious factors. Saddam Hussein’s Ba’athist regime sought to capitalize on Iran’s political instability following the Iranian Revolution in 1979, while also aiming to assert Iraq’s regional dominance. In contrast, Iran, under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini, viewed the war as a defense of its Islamic revolution and sought to export its revolutionary ideals to neighboring countries. The international community played a significant role in the conflict, with various countries providing military support, weapons, and financial aid to both Iran and Iraq. The United States, for example, supported Iraq, viewing it as a bulwark against Iran’s revolutionary ambitions, while Iran received support from countries like Syria and Libya.The war finally ended in August 1988 with a United Nations-brokered ceasefire. Despite the cessation of hostilities, the war left deep scars on both countries, contributing to economic hardships, social upheaval, and long-lasting animosities in the region.

Question 25

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Persian Gulf War

Answer 25

The Persian Gulf War, also known as the Gulf War or the First Gulf War, was a conflict that took place from August 2, 1990, to February 28, 1991, primarily between Iraq and a coalition of forces led by the United States, following Iraq’s invasion and occupation of Kuwait, acquiring that nation’s large oil reserves, canceling a large debt Iraq owed Kuwait, and expanding Iraqi power in the region. The war ended with a UN sanctioned ceasefire.

Question 26

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Osama bin Laden

Answer 26

Osama bin Laden was a Saudi Arabian-born militant and the founder of the jihadist organization al-Qaeda. He is most infamously known for orchestrating the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States. He became involved in Islamic militancy, and was influenced by the teachings of radical Islamic scholars and became passionate about jihad, or holy war, against what he perceived as enemies of Islam. During the 1980s, bin Laden joined the Afghan Mujahideen in their fight against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In 1988, bin Laden founded al-Qaeda, which means “The Base” in Arabic. The organization aimed to unite jihadists globally to wage war against those perceived as oppressors of Muslims, including the United States and its allies.

Question 27

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Al-Qaeda

Answer 27

Al-Qaeda is a global militant Islamist organization founded by Osama bin Laden in the late 1980s. Al-Qaeda was originally formed to support the Afghan mujahideen fighters in their resistance against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in the 1980s. Al-Qaeda operates as a decentralized network of cells and affiliates, with operatives and supporters located in various countries around the world. Al-Qaeda’s ideology is rooted in extremist interpretations of Islam, advocating for the establishment of a pan-Islamic caliphate governed by Sharia law. They view the United States and its allies as the primary enemies of Islam, and seek to overthrow secular governments in Muslim-majority countries and expel Western influence from the Muslim world. Therefore, they led the Al-Qaeda attacks during 9/11. where four commercial airliners were hijacked, crashing two into the World Trade Center towers in New York City, one into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and the fourth into a field in Pennsylvania.

Question 28

Modern Middle East and Central Asia

Taliban

Answer 28

The Taliban, an Islamist militant group, emerged in Afghanistan in the 1990s after the Soviet withdrawal. Founded by Mullah Omar and Abdul Ghani Baradar, they quickly gained control, imposing strict Sharia law and repressive policies, especially targeting women and minorities. Internationally isolated, they faced sanctions for supporting terrorist groups like al-Qaeda. After 9/11, the U.S. intervened, leading to their removal from power. Since then, they’ve waged an insurgency, aiming to regain control through guerrilla warfare and terrorism.

Question 29

Modern Middle East and Central Asia, how does all of this connect?

Answer 29

These events are interconnected through a complex web of geopolitical, ideological, and historical factors that shaped the modern Middle East and Central Asia. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which aimed to bolster a pro-communist government, spurred resistance from Afghan mujahideen supported by the United States, laying the groundwork for the rise of militant groups like al-Qaeda. The Iranian Revolution, driven by discontent with the Shah’s regime and the desire to establish an Islamic theocracy, challenged Western influence in the region and fueled sectarian tensions, leading to conflicts like the Iran-Iraq War. Saddam Hussein’s aggressive foreign policy, including the invasion of Iran and Kuwait, destabilized the region and drew international intervention, culminating in events like the Persian Gulf War and Operation Iraqi Freedom. These conflicts, alongside the emergence of groups like al-Qaeda and the Taliban, reflect the complex dynamics of power, ideology, and identity that continue to shape the Middle East and Central Asia today, impacting regional stability and global security.

Question 30

North Korea

Answer 30

After the Korean War ended in 1953, North and South Korea were separated by a demilitarized zone, with North Korea developed into a totalitarian state as Kim Il-sung took over. The government was highly centralized, with a one-party system dominated by the Workers’ Party of Korea. Kim Il-sung implemented the Juche ideology, emphasizing self-reliance, which led to economic isolation in an attempt to reduce foreign aid and increase economic independence. There was prioritization of military and heavy industry over consumer needs. The regime exercised strict control over all aspects of life, suppressing free speech and operating labor camps. Despite initial economic growth in the 1950s with aid from the Soviet Union and China, North Korea’s economy stagnated in the 1970s and 1980s due to inefficiencies in the economy and increasing isolation. The collapse of the Soviet Union further worsened the situation, leading to severe food shortages, more isolation and poverty. However, North Korea maintained a large military and began developing nuclear weapons in the 1980s, resulting in international condemnation and sanctions from countries like the U.S..

Question 31

Kim Il-Sung

Answer 31

Kim Il-sung was the founding leader of North Korea, serving from its establishment in 1948 until his death in 1994. He developed North Korea into a totalitarian state characterized by a highly centralized government and a one-party system under the Workers’ Party of Korea. Kim Il-sung implemented the Juche ideology, which emphasized self-reliance and economic independence, theoretically aiming to empower the nation but in practice consolidating his own power. His policies focused heavily on military and heavy industry, often at the expense of consumer needs, leading to widespread poverty and economic stagnation. Kim Il-sung’s legacy includes the establishment of a large military and the pursuit of nuclear weapons, resulting in ongoing international condemnation and sanctions.

Question 32

Kim Jong-Il

Answer 32

Kim Jong-il, the son of Kim Il-sung, led North Korea from 1994 until his death in 2011. His rule was marked by a continuation of his father’s policies, emphasizing the Juche ideology of self-reliance and the military-first policy known as Songun. Kim Jong-il further entrenched the totalitarian regime. Under Kim Jong-il, North Korea experienced severe economic challenges, including widespread famine in the mid-1990s, which led to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people. The regime’s focus on military and nuclear development continued, leading to the successful testing of nuclear weapons in 2006 and 2009. These actions resulted in increased international sanctions and further isolation of North Korea from the global community. Kim Jong-il maintained a strong grip on power through a combination of political purges, and the cultivation of a personality cult. His leadership style was characterized by secrecy, and he rarely appeared in public, contributing to the mystique surrounding his persona.

Question 33

Kim Jong-Un

Answer 33

Kim Jong-un spent much of his childhood in Switzerland, despite being born in Pyongyang, North Korea. Despite North Korean citizens being unable to travel abroad, he enjoyed activities like amusement parks and skiing. Despite lacking military experience, he rose rapidly through military and political ranks to become a 4-star general and deputy chairman of the Workers Party. His rule has been marked by a combination of aggressive military posturing and efforts to solidify his own power through purges and the elimination of potential rivals, including his uncle Jang Song-thaek and his half-brother Kim Jong-nam. Kim Jong-un has continued North Korea’s focus on military development, significantly advancing its nuclear and ballistic missile programs. This has led to heightened tensions with the international community, particularly the United States, and resulted in severe economic sanctions. Despite these challenges, Kim Jong-un has also engaged in unprecedented diplomatic efforts, including summits with South Korean President Moon Jae-in and U.S. President Donald Trump. Domestically, Kim Jong-un has introduced limited economic reforms aimed at improving the standard of living for some North Koreans. However, the country remains largely isolated and under strict state control, with human rights abuses and censorship continuing unabated. His leadership has maintained the personality cult established by his grandfather and father, portraying him as a near-divine figure.

Question 34

Rwandan Genocide

Answer 34

The historical background of the Rwandan Genocide starts with the Tutsi monarchy established in 1860, where Tutsis were the ruling class and Hutus served them. Belgium, after World War I, administered Rwanda after the League of Nations gave them the right to that country, exploiting existing ethnic divisions by favoring Tutsis and introducing identity cards to differentiate Hutus and Tutsis. In 1959, Hutus revolted, leading to mass Tutsi killings. The children of exiled Tutsis formed the RPF (Rwandan Patriotic Front), sparking a civil war in 1990. Political instability and economic issues worsened ethnic tensions, culminating in the 1994 genocide following Hutu President Habyarimana’s assassination, orchestrated by Hutu extremists. The Interahamwe military would kill hundreds of thousands of Tutsis and some Hutus. Despite being aware of the conflict, the international community failed to intervene effectively, as UN and Belgium troops were ordered to not intervene and stop the genocide, and they didn’t have the resources too. The Tutsi-led RPF ended the violence by seizing control of the country, ending the mass killings but also triggering large-scale displacement of Hutus into neighboring countries.

Question 35

Hutus

Answer 35

Hutus are one of the two main ethnic groups in Rwanda, the other being the Tutsis. Historically, Hutus were primarily agriculturalists and constituted the majority of the population. In the context of the Rwandan Genocide, the term “Hutus” refers to those who were predominantly responsible for carrying out the mass killings of Tutsis and moderate Hutus during the genocide in 1994.

Question 36

Tutsis

Answer 36

Tutsis are one of the two main ethnic groups in Rwanda, the other being Hutus. Historically, Tutsis were often associated with cattle ownership and were considered the ruling class, while Hutus were primarily farmers. Tutsis were typically taller and had more “Caucasian” features compared to Hutus, although these physical distinctions were not absolute. During the Rwandan Genocide, Tutsis were targeted by extremist Hutu militias, resulting in mass killings and displacement.

Question 37

Paul Rusesabagina

Answer 37

Paul Rusesabagina gained international attention for his actions during the Rwandan Genocide. He was a hotel manager during the genocide and is credited with saving the lives of over 1,200 people by providing shelter in the hotel he managed, the Hôtel des Mille Collines, during the violence. However, Rusesabagina’s later years have been marked by controversy. He has been accused of various crimes by the Rwandan government, including terrorism, financing terrorism, and forming an armed group. He formed the FLN (National Liberation Front), but he claims it was formed “as an armed wing, not as a terrorist group as the prosecution keeps saying. I do not deny that the FLN committed crimes but my role was diplomacy,” Rusesabagina has denied these accusations, claiming that they are politically motivated.

Question 38

Bosnian War

Answer 38

The Bosnian War, occurring from 1992 to 1995, was a complex conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It unfolded in the aftermath of the breakup of Yugoslavia due to the events of the Cold War, as well as the end of the liberal communist regime of The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, led by Josip Broz Tito. The war was primarily fought among Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats. After he died , nationalist politicians exploiting ethnic tensions engaged in nationalist rhetoric, pitting Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats against each other. From 1991-1992, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, and Macedonia declared independence from Yugoslavia (as Yugoslavia was a multiple nation federation). These declarations of independence led to war breaking out in the former Yugoslavia. In 1992, the Siege of Sarajevo began. The war endured from 1992 to 1995. The war was marked by widespread atrocities, including ethnic cleansing, mass killings, rape, and the siege of cities such as Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, where civilians endured years of relentless shelling and sniper attacks. The international community’s response to the conflict was initially hesitant, but eventually, diplomatic efforts led to the signing of the Dayton Agreement in 1995, which ended the war. The agreement established a framework for peace and divided Bosnia and Herzegovina into two entities: the predominantly Bosniak and Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the predominantly Serb Republika Srpska.

Question 39

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Bosnian Genocide

Answer 39

The Bosnian Genocide was a series of atrocities and acts of ethnic cleansing that occurred during the Bosnian War from 1992 to 1995. It primarily targeted Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) civilians and was perpetrated by Bosnian Serb forces, as well as other factions involved in the conflict. Examples of atrocities during the bosnian genocide were:

Siege of Sarajevo: During this time, the city was surrounded by Bosnian Serb forces, trapping around 400,000 civilians without access to food, medicine, water, or electricity. The siege was marked by horrific violence, including mortar attacks on civilian areas, resulting in thousands of deaths and injuries. Despite efforts to airlift aid into the city, the siege persisted until February 1996, resulting in an estimated population decrease of 200,000 people.

Foča Rape Camps: Following the Bosnian Serb takeover of Foča in 1992, Bosniak men were sent to concentration camps, while Bosniak women and girls were taken to “rape camps” where they faced repeated sexual violence.
Srebrenica Genocide: In July 1995, Bosnian Serb forces led by General Ratko Mladic entered the UN-designated “Safe Area” of Srebrenica and massacred over 8,000 Bosniak men and boys, making it the largest massacre in Europe since World War II.

Lašva Valley Case: Bosnian Croats committed war crimes against Bosniaks in the Lašva River Valley, including the destruction of mosques, murder of civilians, and shelling of shopping centers. The global community failed to take significant action despite awareness of the atrocities, leading to the incarceration and deaths of thousands of Bosniak men in concentration camps.

Question 40

Genocide

Answer 40

Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious, or national group. It involves mass killings, often accompanied by other forms of violence such as displacement, rape, and torture, with the intent to eliminate the targeted group. Genocide is considered one of the most serious international crimes and is prohibited under international law.

Question 41

Ethnic Cleansing

Answer 41

Ethnic cleansing involves the forced removal of ethnic or religious groups from a certain territory through violence, intimidation, and atrocities. The goal is often to create a region inhabited by a single homogeneous group. During the Bosnian War, ethnic cleansing was carried out primarily by Bosnian Serb forces against Bosniak and Croat populations. The Bosnian Genocide was referred to as ethnic cleansing.

Question 42

Serbs

Answer 42

Serbs are an Orthodox christian ethnic group primarily located in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro. In the context of the Bosnian War, Bosnian Serbs, led by figures like Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić, were involved in campaigns of ethnic cleansing and genocide against Bosniaks and Croats.

Question 43

Croats

Answer 43

Croats are an ethnic Catholic group mainly found in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. During the Bosnian War, Bosnian Croats were both victims and perpetrators of ethnic violence, as tensions between Croats, Serbs, and Bosniaks led to complex and shifting alliances and conflicts.

Question 44

Bosniaks

Answer 44

Bosniaks are a South Slavic ethnic group primarily associated with Bosnia and Herzegovina. They are predominantly Muslim and were the primary victims of the ethnic cleansing and genocide carried out by Bosnian Serb forces during the Bosnian War.

Question 45

Josip Broz Tito

Answer 45

Josip Broz Tito was the communist leader of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from the end of World War II until his death in 1980. He maintained a federal state composed of multiple ethnic groups through a mix of political repression and promotion of Yugoslav identity, preventing the ethnic conflicts that emerged after his death. Tito kept control over diverse ethnic, religious, and nationalist groups under the umbrella of a unified ‘greater Yugoslavia.’

Question 46

Radovan Karadžić

Answer 46

Radovan Karadžić was an ethnic Serb. As the political leader of the Bosnian Serbs during the Bosnian War, he played a key role in implementing the policy of ethnic cleansing, which aimed to rid certain territories of non-Serb populations, particularly Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) and Croats. Karadžić was specifically implicated in orchestrating the Srebrenica massacre, where Bosnian Serb forces killed thousands of Bosniak men and boys in July 1995. He was indicted and convicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.

Question 47

Slobodan Milošević

Answer 47

Slobodan Milošević was an ethnic Serb. As the President of Serbia and later the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Bosnian War, Milošević played a significant role in supporting and financing Serbian nationalist movements in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Kosovo. He advocated for the creation of a “Greater Serbia” and was accused of fomenting ethnic tensions and inciting violence against non-Serb populations. Milošević was indicted by the ICTY for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. While he did not directly participate in military operations, his nationalist policies contributed to the conflict and the atrocities committed during the Bosnian War.

Question 48

Ratko Mladić

Answer 48

Ratko Mladić was an ethnic Serb. As the military leader of the Bosnian Serb forces during the Bosnian War, Mladić played a central role in carrying out military campaigns aimed at ethnically cleansing territories of non-Serb populations. He was responsible for orchestrating the Siege of Sarajevo, during which Bosnian Serb forces besieged the city and subjected its inhabitants to shelling and sniper attacks. Mladić was also directly involved in the Srebrenica massacre, where thousands of Bosniak men and boys were systematically killed. He was indicted and convicted by the ICTY for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

Question 49

Globalization

Answer 49

In an economic context, it refers to the reduction and removal of barriers between national borders to facilitate the flow of goods, capital, services, labor, technology, and more.

Question 50

Free trade

Answer 50

Freedom from state imposed limits and constraints on trade across borders.

Question 51

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

Answer 51

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was an international treaty aimed at promoting international trade by reducing tariffs and other trade barriers among member countries. It aimed to create a framework for international economic cooperation following World War II. The treaty was signed by 23 countries and came into effect in 1948. GATT operated through a series of negotiating rounds, where member countries would come together to discuss and negotiate trade agreements. The most famous of these rounds was the Uruguay Round, which lasted from 1986 to 1994 and resulted in the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) to replace GATT.

Question 52

World Trade Organization (WTO)

Answer 52

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization that regulates international trade, promotes global economic cooperation, resolves any trading disputes, and gives tech assistance and trading to help developing countries, in order to help expand on the original principles of the GATT.

Question 53

Little tigers

Answer 53

After World War II, Japan’s economic resurgence was catalyzed by U.S. support, including financial aid and the lifting of war reparations. Leveraging an export-oriented approach and a compliant workforce, Japan shifted from labor-intensive to capital-intensive industries, like electronics and automotive manufacturing. By the 1970s, Japan’s technology-driven products showcased its economic prowess globally. Despite economic challenges in the 1990s, Japan inspired Asian countries, known as the “Little Tigers,” like Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan, to adopt similar export-driven industrialization models. These nations had overpopulation and lack of resources like Japan had a century ago, and thus transitioned from labor-intensive to technology-driven industries, becoming significant players in the global economy by the 1980s and 1990s.

Question 54

European Union (EU)

Answer 54

An economic alliance, specifically an integrated regional bloc, is a union of (once 6, then 12, then now 27) member states located primarily in Europe to band Europe together under a single market to give the U.S. economic competition, as well as allowing for free trade and sovereignty for the member nations. The European Union (EU) played a significant role in the formation of the Eurozone, a group of European Union (EU) member states that have adopted the euro (€) as their official currency.

Question 55

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Answer 55

An economic alliance by major oil-producing states such as Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, and even Venezuela and Indonesia.

Question 56

Association of Southeast Nations (ASEAN)

Answer 56

An economic partnership established in 1968 by the foreign ministers of Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines. The primary objectives were to accelerate economic development and promote political stability in Southeast Asia. It was originally conceived as a defense against thespread of communism, its economic focus became clearer after signing cooperative agreements with Japan in 1977 and European Community in 1980, and by 1992 member states established a free trade zone and cut tariffs on industrial goods over a fifteen-year period.

Question 57

Technology changes

Answer 57

New modes of communication arose, such as the radio, telephone, the cellphone and the internet. All of these were invented around the 1870s - 1970s, with the internet being the latest invention. New modes of transportation were made in the late 1800s - early 1900s such as the Automobile (made by Karl Benz then made at a faster rate by Henry Ford) and the Airplane by the Wright brothers, with jet technology first beginning in the 1940s. Crops started to become genetically modified. Vaccines were made for diseases like tuberculosis, whooping cough, polio, hepatitis B, ebola, malaria, chicken pox and influenza in the 1900s. Changes in communication through internet, radio, telephone, television and computers allowed for English to become the primary language for global communication and the television being used to promote state building.

Question 58

Population Issues

Answer 58

The growth of the human population was caused by advancements in science, agriculture, industry, and medecine. There was also an decrease in death rates with the rise of vaccines and antibiotics, leading to both developed and developing populations increasing rapidly. A large population changes the earth and its environment, putting a strain on the earth;s carrying capacity. Scientists and citizens are concerned that human society can’t continue to expand beyond the limits of Earth’s resources, which is finite. The Club of Rome have attempted to specify these limits in their report “The Limits to Growth”, however their predictions were inaccurate, as they claimed our natural resources would approach exhaustion when most of our reserves have grown since 1972.

Question 59

Climate change

Answer 59

The increase in the human population has led to environmental problems, as pollution levels increase, more habitats and animal and plant species disappear, and more natural resources are consumed. This leads to climate change, or long term shifts in temperature and weather patterns, such as global warming.

Question 60

Global warming

Answer 60

The phenomenon of increasing average air temperature near the surface of the earth over the past two centuries, which happened as a result of the influence of human activities since the beginning of industrialization, as well as the increase of greenhouse gasses. While there has been an attempt by the international community to make reform regarding climate change, developing countries are not too keen on cutting emissions as they need to industrialize and increase production/GDP, even if emissions are caused.

Question 61

Economic Inequities

Answer 61

The unequal distribution of resources and income, leading to widespread poverty, is a major global concern. Millions in developing regions like Africa, Eastern Europe, and Asia struggle to access basic necessities such as food, water, and shelter. Poverty is the lack of basic human necessities, which leads to malnutrition and vitamin and mineral deficiencies, causing severe health issues like mental disorders and organ damage. It stems from both a shortage of and unequal distribution of resources. High populations and environmental degradation in places like India cause the depletion of available resources. The unequal distribution of resources resulted from years of colonialism and slavery. While some nations, like South Korea, Malaysia, and Singapore, have successfully raised income levels, others have lagged behind. Economic globalization has widened the gap between developed and developing countries. Poor economic conditions can also be attributed to servitude or slavery, with forced labor and child labor prevalent in parts of South and Southeast Asia even after slavery was abolished.

Question 62

AIDS/HIV

Answer 62

Epidemics in countries with poor sanitation are still an issue - WHO (World Health Organization) works to combat them. HIV/AIDS is a viral infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV attacks the immune system, and if not treated, can transform into AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), the most advanced stage of HIV infection. It can be gained through sexual contact, contact with contaminated blood, or from mother to child from pregnancy. Medical experts first identified AIDS among homosexual men and drug users in New York and San Francisco in 1981 while in Sub Saharan Africa, it spread among heterosexual men, children and women. While the UN called for the elimination of all infectious diseases by 2000 in the year 1978, that goal was unrealistic and AIDS/HIV was still able to rise.

Question 63

Global terrorism

Answer 63

While there is no universally agreed on definition of terrorism, a key feature is the deliberate and systematic use of violence against civilians, with the aim of advancing political, religious or ideological causes. Examples of terrorism can be found in conflicts in Algeria and Vietnam, conflicts between Isareals and Paletsinians, and clashes between Protestant and Catholics in Ireland.

Question 64

Feminist movement

Answer 64

Mary Wollstonecraft is seen by many as a founder of feminism due to her 1792 book titled A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in which she argues that class and private property are the basis of discrimination against women, and that women as much as men needed equal rights, as well as Olympus de Gouge. The feminist movement emerged in industrialized nations, driven by the discrimination women faced in the workplace despite gaining political rights like suffrage after World War I. After World War II, as more women entered the workforce, they protested job discrimination, pay disparities, and legal inequalities. In the 1960s, this discontent expanded into a broader feminist movement addressing all facets of gender inequality. Influenced by the civil rights movement, the feminist movement critiqued societal norms rooted in biologically determined gender roles that oppressed women. Key demands included equality in the workplace and full control over reproductive rights, including access to birth control and abortion. While significant milestones such as the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the legalization of birth control and abortion provided some measures of liberation, the failure to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment by the 1982 deadline underscored ongoing challenges in achieving full gender equality.

Question 65

Gender Equality in China

Answer 65

Some socialist or communist societies transformed their legal systems to ensure basic equality.Women had similar positions as men in communist/former communist countries. The communist dedication to women’s rights by Mao Ze Dong led to improvement in the legal status of Chinese women when communist gained power. Communist leaders in China based a marriage law to declare a new democratic marriage system, based on free choice, monogamy, equal rights for both sexes and protection of the interests of women and children, as well as abolishing patriarchal practices. However, women in China have never gained true equality despite these laws. Some women do have high status in the CCP, and many women in China have full time jobs, they don’t get the same wages as men, and also do most of the house work. Confucian values within China continue to degrade the value and status of women, especially in rural areas.

Question 66

Aung San Suu Kyi

Answer 66

Despite the lack of political power women exert, there are some women with high political offices or leadership positions. In Myanmar (formerly Burma) Aung San Suu Kyi became a leader, first gaining political authority after her father’s assassination. She assumed the leadership of the democratic movement in Burma after returning from exile in 1988 to call for a nonviolent revolution against Myanmar’s “fascist government”. As a result, she was placed on house arrest, but made a new political institution, the “gateside meeting”, speaking to her followers in her own home. SHe and her political party won in a landslide victory in the 1990 Myanmar elections and she received the Nobel prize, but couldn’t do either because she was under house arrest. When she was freed in 2010, she was elected to the Burmese parliament in 2012.

Question 67

Migration

Answer 67

Migration is the movement of people from one place to another, either internally within a country or externally across international borders. Internal migration tends to involve moving from rural to urban areas, leading to urbanization in regions like northern Europe, Australia, and the Americas, and shifts to a free market economy. External migration includes both voluntary and forced movements, such as European colonization of the Americas and the transatlantic slave trade. Migration is driven by factors like economic opportunities, political or religious persecution, and better healthcare. It impacts societies by fostering cross-cultural interactions, creating migrant communities, and sometimes causing prejudice and competition for jobs in host countries. Tourism, a transient form of migration, emerged from industrialization, becoming a major industry that supports millions of jobs and generates significant revenue, although it often leads to low-paying jobs in developing countries and transforms local cultures.

Question 68

Green Revolution

Answer 68

The Green Revolution refers to a series of initiatives and technological advancements in agriculture that began in the mid-20th century and aimed to increase food production worldwide, particularly in developing countries. These initiatives focused on the adoption of new agricultural techniques, such as the use of high-yielding crop varieties, modern irrigation methods, and chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The Green Revolution significantly boosted agricultural productivity and helped alleviate food shortages in many parts of the world, leading to improved food security and economic development. However, it also raised concerns about environmental sustainability, as the intensive use of chemical inputs and irrigation systems sometimes resulted in soil degradation, water pollution, and loss of biodiversity.

Question 69

India after the Green Revolution

Answer 69

After the Green Revolution, India experienced a significant transformation in its agricultural sector, leading to increased food production and self-sufficiency. Introduced in the 1960s, the Green Revolution involved the adoption of high-yield variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and improved irrigation techniques. This led to substantial growth in the production of staple crops like wheat and rice, particularly in states such as Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh. The revolution helped alleviate food shortages and reduced dependency on food imports. However, it also brought challenges, including environmental degradation due to excessive use of chemicals, increased water scarcity, and socio-economic disparities between regions and farmers. While the Green Revolution marked a pivotal moment in India’s agricultural history, it also underscored the need for sustainable farming practices and inclusive agricultural policies.

Question 70

Ozone Layer

Answer 70

1) Small layer of gasses in the atmosphere that absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet rays and
protects us from skin cancer.
2) Currently being destroyed by chemicals due to pollution.
3) Demonstrates a need for stricter pollution laws throughout the world.

Question 71

Acid Rain

Answer 71

Rain that contains chemicals due to pollution.

Question 72

Deforestation

Answer 72

Elimination of rainforests in Brazil (Amazon Basin), Costa Rica, and the Congo (in Central Africa).

Question 73

Desertification

Answer 73

Change from arable (fertile) land to desert. Causes include deforestation and overgrazing. Especially a concern in the Sahel (region south of the Sahara Desert in Africa).

Question 74

Chernobyl

Answer 74

A catastrophic nuclear accident that occurred on April 26, 1986, at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union, resulting in a massive release of radioactive material across Europe. Politically, it exposed the inefficiencies and secrecy of the Soviet government, allowing for Mikhail Gorbachev to accelerate the process of instituting the policies of Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring), and contributing to the eventual dissolution of the USSR. Socio-economically, it led to the evacuation and resettlement of over 300,000 people, long-term health issues such as increased cancer rates, and significant financial burdens for cleanup and containment efforts, impacting both the Soviet Union and its successor states. The disaster also prompted global revaluation of nuclear safety standards and increased international cooperation on nuclear security.

Question 75

Greenhouse Effect

Answer 75

Trapping of warm air in the atmosphere (leads to global warming).
Caused by chemicals (like carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere.
Could lead to flooding of coastal areas.

Question 76

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

Answer 76

The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997 and in force since 2005, is an international treaty aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming. The protocol faced criticism for its limited impact, particularly because major emitters like China and the United States were not bound by it despite being the main producers of greenhouse emissions. China was a developing country who didn’t have to adhere to the protocol, and the U.S. did not ratify the agreement despite signing it due to fears of it hurting the economy. The protocol was extended until 2020, and its principles were eventually succeeded by the 2015 Paris Agreement, which sought broader and more ambitious global participation in limiting temperature increases to well below 2°C above pre industrial levels.

Question 77

Nuclear Proliferation

Answer 77

Nuclear proliferation refers to the spread of nuclear technology to countries that do not currently possess them. Although nuclear technology can be used to develop energy (i.e.- electricity), the same technology can also be used to create nuclear weapons. North Korea (a communist nation) recently developed nuclear weapons and Iran may be in the process of developing nuclear weapons. The development of nuclear weapons in North Korea is a concern for America considering Korea would most likely use nuclear weapons on America.