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PSYC112 > Child Development > Flashcards

Child Development Flashcards

1
Q

Definition of Development

A

The sequence of physical & psychological changes that human beings undergo as they grow older

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2
Q

Definition of Developmental Psychology

A

The scientific study of age related changes in behaviour, thinking, emotion and personality

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3
Q

What is Continues development
(Quantitive change)

A

Emphasizes that development and changes in individuals occur gradually
eg - as you grow older you learn more vocabulary

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4
Q

What is Discontinutity
(Qualitive change)

A

People pass through stages of life that are qualitatively different from each other
eg - children go from only being able to think in very literal terms to being able to think abstractly. They have moved into the ‘abstract thinking’ phase of their lives.

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5
Q

Sources of Development

A

Is development guided by genetic programming in cells, or is it more the external enviroment
eg - nature vs nuture

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6
Q

Nature vs Nuture

A

“Nature” influences of biological/genetic predispositions to human traits
“Nurture,” influence of learning and “environmental” factors on traits

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7
Q

Epigenetic’s

A

Interaction between biology and environmental factors

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8
Q

Data Collection methods in Developmental Psychology

A

Self Report
- relies on an individual’s own report of their symptoms, behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes
Observation
- a method in which a person observes behaviour to note changes in people or places
Experimental Methods
- manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable
Clinical Interview Methods
- to determine if someone is suffering from a mental disorder

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9
Q

Research Designs in Developmental Psychology

A

Longitudinal Design
- looking at people over time
Cross Sectional Design
- compare differences in groups at a single point in time

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10
Q

What is Cognitive Development

A

Intellectual Growth

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11
Q

Cognitive Processes

A

Which we get to know ourselves and our worlds
- Memory, learning attention
- Perception, thought, problem solving

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12
Q

Who is the Father of Cognitive Development

A

Jean Piaget 1896-1980
- Observed Children
- Proposed a sequence of development that children follow
- Four “stages” of cognitive development

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13
Q

What are the 4 stages of cognitive development

A

Sensorimotor stage
Pre-operational stage
Concrete operations stage
Formal operations stage

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14
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A
  • Birth to 2 years
  • Object permanence / object’s don’t exist when they are out of sight
  • Cognition closley tied to external stimulation
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15
Q

Birth - 3 months

A

Look at visual stimuli
Turning head towards noise

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16
Q

3 months

A

Following moving objects with eyes
Stares at place where object had disappeared, but will not search for object

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17
Q

5 months

A

Grasp and manipulate objects
Anticipate future position of object

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18
Q

8 months

A

Searches for hidden object
A not B effect - search in the last place they found the object not where they saw it last

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19
Q

12 months

A

Will search in the last place they saw the object

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20
Q

Schema Formation

A
  • A mental representation or set of rules that define a particular behaviour
  • Helps us understand current and future experiences
  • Form by 2 processes known as assimilation and accomodation
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21
Q

Assimilation

A

the process by which new information is modified to fit in with an exisiting schema

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22
Q

Accomodation

A

the process by which an exisiting schema is modified or changed by a new experience

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23
Q

Representational Thought

A
  • ability to form mental representations of others behavior
  • occurs towards end of sensorimotor period
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24
Q

Deffered imitation

A

a childs ability to imitate the actions he or she has observed others perform in the past

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25
Q

Pre Operational Stage

A

2 - 7 years
- ability to think logically as well as symbolically
- rapid development of language ability
- counting
- object manipulation

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26
Q

Conservation

A

the understanding that specific properties of objects (height, weight, volume, number) remain the same despite apparent changes or arrangment of those objects

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27
Q

Egocentrism

A

a childs belief that others see the world in precisely the same way that he or she does

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28
Q

Concrete Operations Stage

A
  • 7-12 years
  • ability to form logical analysis
  • ability to empathise with the thoughts/feelings of others
  • understanding of complex cause-effect relations
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29
Q

Formal Operations Stage

A
  • 12 years upward
  • abstract reasoning
  • metacognition
  • dependant on exposure to principles of scientific thinking
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30
Q

Metacognition

A

thinking about thinking
thinking about your own thought processes

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31
Q

Criticisms of Piaget’s theory

A

Piaget underestimated childrens abilites at various ages
- babies dont seem to start with nothing
- cognitive development isnt an all or nothing phenomenon

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32
Q

The visual cliff

A

children can perceive depth around the time they an crawl
even pre crawling infants may be able to discriminate between the two sides of the “cliff”

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33
Q

The effect of occlusion

A

habituation procedure
- infants prefer to pay attention to novel things
- over time they become accustomed to stimuli and pay less attention to them
- the moment something “new” happens they pay attention again
- 4 month olds seem to understand occlusion

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34
Q

criticism of object permanence

A

not necessarily that the baby dosen’t understand where the object is but more so they don’t have the motor coordination to reach for it

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35
Q

number and mathematical reasoning

A

piaget said infants had no concept of numbers untill they were around 6 years old but even 6 months old show some understanding of number

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36
Q

social cognition in babies

A
  • newborns would rather look at faces than scrambled faces
  • at 3 weeks old, infants attempt to imitate facial expressions
  • 9 month olds look in direction of mothers gaze
  • 6 month olds appear to understand actions in terms of intended goals
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37
Q

theory of mind

A

a group of skills relating to the understanding of the experince of other peoples minds (their intentions, beliefs, likes and dislikes, persepctives etc)
- allows us to be effective in social situations

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38
Q

broccoli versus crackers study

A

Alsion Gopnnik
18 month olds gave the experimenter what she liked
14 month olds gave the experimenter what they liked
- young children can take into account others perspectives

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39
Q

true and false beliefs

A
  • aspect of theory of mind
  • false belief task
  • on average, 4 year olds pass and 3 year olds don’ t
  • children must predict what an agent having a false belief will do, either verbally or by pointing to where the agent will go
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40
Q

what is social development

A
  • forming bonds with people
  • learning to behave in socially acceptable ways
  • learning to be a good friend
  • learning to deal with adversaries
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41
Q

attachment

A

an emotional and social bond between infant and caregiver that spans both time and space
- john bowlby 1969

42
Q

social learning theory

A

we learn how to behave through watching other people

43
Q

cognitive developmental theory

A

theory that cognitive development drives social development

44
Q

which parenting style is associated with the best outcomes for children

A

authoritative parenting

45
Q

display rules

A

part of emotional regulation
- govern the degree to which emotions need to be regulated in a given situation
- differ largely across cultures

46
Q

moral behaviour

A

behvaiour that conforms to a generally accepeted set of rules

47
Q

principle of minimal sufficiency

A

the quickest internalisation of rules happen when the consequences are enough to get the child to change their behaviour but not so harsh that they feel completley forced into it

48
Q

kohlbergs theory of moral development

A
  • Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)
  • studied boys aged between 10 and 17 years
  • presented subjects with scenarios
  • pre conventional level
  • conventional level
  • post conventional level
  • found correlation between moral reasoning and moral conduct
49
Q

kolhbergs pre conventional level

A

behavior based on external sanctions, such as authority and punishment

50
Q

kolhbergs conventional level

A

understanding that the social system has an interest in peoples behavior

51
Q

kohlbergs post conventional level

A

moral rules have some underlying principles that apply to all situations and societies

52
Q

genetic sex

A

women XX
men XY

53
Q

morphological sex

A

what you look like

54
Q

gender roles

A

cultural expectations about ways in which men and women should think and behave

55
Q

gender sterotypes

A

beliefs about differences in the behvaiours, abilities, and personality traits of males and females

56
Q

the development of gender

A

18 months - beginnings of gender typed preferences
3 years old - knowledge of own gender, prefernce for different toys and friends of sex
5 years old - knowledge of gender constancy (gender stays the same over time)

57
Q

biological explanations for gender differences

A
  • exposure of the developing brain to male sex hormones has behaviour affects
  • physical aggression in males apperars to be biologically predisposed
  • the anatomy of the human brain shows some gender differences thought to be due to different patterns of hormone exposure during development
58
Q

Gandelman, Vom Saal & Reinisch (1977)
prenatal exposure to testosterone results in more “male-like” behaviour in females.

A

female mice that were surrounded by males in the uterus behaved more male like

59
Q

Ward (1972)

A

males deprived of prenatal testosterone behave more like females
- To deprive the males of testosterone they inflicted stress on the mother by shining a bright light

Male rats that were deprived of testosterone tended to do this lordotic responding that we would normally see in female rats

60
Q

evolutionary theories

A

propose that men and women have evolved to behave differently, depending on their roles in society
eg - primitive women stayed home and did activities that required fine coordination with smale objects whereas men hunted and therefore required a greater level of spatial ability

61
Q

congenital adrenal hyperplasia

A

adrenal glands produce too much testosterone
- women who have this morphologically start looking more like males
- women with this have better spatial ability

62
Q

The case of Bruce Reimer

A

case of parents who had twin boys and when they were toddlers they got cicrumsized and alcohol caught fire and essentially burnt of bruces penis. They got told to raise him as a girl. They raised bruce as brenda which posed many issues in bruces childhood.

63
Q

environmental explanations for gender differences

A

Level of attachment, beliefs, values and how much attention one is given. Gender stereotypes often perpetuated by those in one’s environment, like parents, peers, teachers, and even the child themselves.

64
Q

Montemayor 1974

A
  • 6 and 8 year old boys and girls invited to play a game. game labeled as gender appropriate, gender nutural, or gender inappropriate
  • children found game more enjoyable if it was labeled as gender appropriate or neutral
  • childrens preformance was highest when the game was labeled as gender appropriate and lowest when the game was labeled as gender inappropriate
65
Q

Morrongiello & Dawber 1999
examined mothers and fathers communications to sons and daughters aged 2-4 years

A
  • sons recieved more directives, fewer explanations, and more physical pressure than girls
  • parents communicate with young children in a way that may promote increased risk taking by boys and greater percieved injury vulnerability among girls
66
Q

Smith and lloyd 1978
infants gener label was manipulated

A
  • mothers of young infants introduced to a 6 month old infant and asked to play
  • participnats behaved differently according to the assigned gender label
  • even when there are no differences in apperance or outward behavior, parents treat children according to gender label
67
Q

Weisner & Silson-Mitchell 1990
parents who do not subscribe to gender differences

A

parents who do not subscribe to gender differences in socialisation have children whos attitudes and behavior reflect fewer gender sterotypes

68
Q

The development stages of childrens drawing ability

A
  • scribbling stage
  • preschematic stage
  • schematic stage
  • realistic stage
  • period of indecision
69
Q

scribbling stage

A

2-3 years
not representative - do the actions of what they think they are trying to draw but can’t acutally draw it

70
Q

preschematic stage

A
  • first attempts at human figure drawings
  • 3-4 years
  • tadpole drawing - figure of human drawn but arms have been forgotten
  • circle/ellipse representing head
  • 2 (or 4) protruding lines representing limbs
71
Q

schematic stage

A

5-6 years
- children develop a schema
- seperate trunk from head
- initially forget or misplace arms

later on …
- substance added to limbs
- arms placed correctly
- detail (clothing, glasses etc)
- emergence of neck

72
Q

realistic stage

A

from around 9 years old
- marks end of art as a spontaneous activity
- more detail
- expressions, use of space, use of profile

73
Q

period of indecision

A

art is something to be done or left alone

74
Q

the clinical value of childrens drawings

A
  1. projecitve measures - looking at what children have drawn and projecting meaning onto it
  2. verbal communication aid
75
Q

Florence Goodenough (1920s)
florence suggested we can get an intellectual idea of the child from their drawings

A
  • draw a person test (self, mother, father)
  • research suggests that the test can differentiate between groups, but isnt good at identifying individal cases needing special help
  • nadias drawings / child who had non verbal autism but she could draw amazing things
76
Q

sexual abuse and drawings

A

difficulties in diagnosing sexual abuse in children lef to clinicians seeking a non verbal measure of abuse

no pattern to distinguish drawings of abused children with non abused

77
Q

Butler, Gross and Hayne 1995
children visted fire station

A

children visted fire station
- children in the draw and tell group reported twice as much information in the direct recall phase than the tell children
- no differences between groups in the free recall phase
- information reported by the draw and tell group was just as accurate as information reported by the tell group

78
Q

the child sexual abuse dilemma

A
  • children unwilling to disclose abuse
  • medical/physical evidence rarely present
  • absence of eyewtinesses
  • child witness controversy
79
Q

what governs childrens ability to act as a reliable witness?

A

memory
verbal reports
suggestibility

80
Q

early memories are limited by

A
  • short duration
  • context dependence
  • language competence
  • knowledge base
81
Q

verbal reports

A
  • free recall acounts are highly accurate but breif
  • specific questions more detail but more errors
82
Q

Reed 1996 suggestibility

A

cognitively driven suggestibility - leading question alters the witnesses memory
socially driven suggestibility - accept leading question if it is right or wrong

83
Q

Peter Elis

A

case in the 90s, had to do community service in a daycare, children made full on allegations about peter as the interviewers led extremley leading questions

84
Q

Adversarial system for child witnesses

A
  • direct examination
  • cross examination
  • re examination
85
Q

legal system in nz for child witnesses

A

no lower age limit
no corroboration laws
competency requirement

86
Q

potenital problems for child witnesses

A
  1. lack of legal knowledge
  2. confronting the accused
  3. courtroom enviroment
  4. cross examination
87
Q

3 options for children giving evidence in sexual abuse trials

A
  • in a courtroom with a shielding sreen from accussed
  • from another room in the court via CCTV
  • via pre recorded videotape
88
Q

US stats

A
  • children watch on average 5.11 hours of tv per day
  • when asked to choose between watching tv and spending time with their fathers, 54% of 4-6 year olds choose tv
  • the average american child spends 1200 hours per year watching tv
89
Q

ball and bogatz 1970 evaluation of sesame street

A
  • 3-5 year olds
  • alphabet and writing skills measured before and after a 26 week season of seasme street
  • no difference in childrens scores as a function of viewing frequency prior to watching sesame street
  • children from all groups increased on alphabet and writing skill
  • children who watched sesame street the most exhibited the biggest gain on the alphabet and writing test
  • children from low SES families showed the biggest gains
    sesame street reduced childrens ethnic and racial sterotypes
90
Q

Boyatzis, Matillo & Nesbitt 1995 power rangers

A
  • boys committed more aggressive acts than girls
  • those watching ‘power rangers’ committed 7 aggressive acts for every aggresisve act committed by a control child
91
Q

Huessman et al 1984 violent tv

A

boys who exhibited a higher preference for violent tv at age 8 had committed more serious crimes by the age of 30 years than boys who showed a lower preference for violent tv at age 8

92
Q

potential benefits of videogame use

A
  • may be therapuetic and/or educational for children with chronic illnesses
  • may improve fine motor skills and coordination
  • may distract from physical and emotional pain
  • may improve decision making skills and brain plasticity
93
Q

the effect og violent videogame play
Anderson and dill 2000

A

experiment 1
- aggressive personality scale
- videogame use correlated with aggresisve personality, nonaggressive delinquency and aggressive delinquency

experiment 2
- aggressive personality questionnaire
- women delievered longer blasts than men
- indivudals with high scores on the APQ delievered longer blasts than those with low APQ scores
- indivudals who played the violent videogames delievered longer blasts than those who played non violent video games
- this effect occured even when other variables (gender, apq score) were controlled for

94
Q

Definition of imaginary companions

A

an invisible character named and reffered to in conversation with other persons or played with directly for a period of time, at least several months, haveing an air of reality for the child, but no apparently objective basis

95
Q

demographic data

A

IC’s tend to be slightly more common in girls than boys
first born and only children are most likely to have an IC
Most childrenn do not play with their imaginery friends when other children are present

96
Q

Historical views on IC’s

A
  • little was known about IC’s prior to the 20th century
  • IC’s may have been described in spiritual or religious terms

Dr Spock
- urged parents to supply more hugging and piggy back rides
- if IC’s persisted after age 4 parents were told to consult a mental health professional to find out what is lacking

97
Q

Marjorie Taylor

A
  • examined ic’s of 3-12 year old children
  • around 16% are based on real people
  • many have magical powers or unusual physical traits
  • ic animals can usually talk
  • not all are friendly around 3% are enemies
98
Q

social and cognitive ability of kids with ic’s

A

– are better at communicating with adults (manosevitz et al 1973)
- score more highly on verbal tests (taylor 1999)
- have a more developed theory of mind at age 4 (taylor and carlson 1997)
no links between presence of ic and iq and creativity

99
Q

advantages of attachment objects

A
  • reduce distress
  • facilitate exploration
100
Q

how common is attachment to objects

A

mahalski 1983
- new zealand sample
- ages of 1.5 and 7 years
- object attachment peaked at around 2 years

PSYC112 (4 decks)

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