Child Ado. Flashcards by Launico, Leslie Mae M.

is the pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that
begins at conception and continues throughout the lifespan; it includes both growth and
decay.

Development

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refers to physical changes that occur from conception to maturity; quantitative
changes in an individual as he progresses in chronological age, and it may refer to increases
in size, height or weight

Growth

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In a biological sense, is the deterioration of organisms (including human beings) that
leads inevitably to death.

Aging

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is the biological unfolding of an individual according to a plan contained in the
genes (the hereditary characteristics passed from parents to child at conception);
developmental changes that comes with age

Maturation

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is the process of acquiring information through which experience brings about relatively permanent changes in thoughts, feelings, or behavior.

Learning

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refers to all the external, physical, and social conditions and events that can
affect us, from crowded living quarters to stimulating social interactions.

Environment

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an expert in life-span development

(Santrock, 2002)

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It does not end in adulthood. Ken and Naschielle will continue
developing even in adulthood.

Development is lifelong

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Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is possible throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as “I am too old for that…” Neither Kenn nor Naschielle will be too old to learn something.

Development is plastic

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Development consists of biological, cognitive, and
socio-emotional dimensions. Development as a process is complex because it is the
product of biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes.

Development is multidimensional

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involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. The
brains of Naschielle and Kenn develop. They will gain height and weight. They will
experience hormonal changes when they reach the period of puberty, and
cardiovascular decline as they approach late adulthood. All these show the common
biological processes in development.

Biological processes

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involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and
language. Naschielle and Kenn develop from mere sounds to a word becoming two
words, the two words becoming a sentence. They would move on to memorizing their first
prayer, singing Bayang Magiliw in every flag ceremony to imagining what it would be like
to be a teacher or a pilot, playing chess and solving a complex math problem. All these
reflect the role of cognitive processes in development

Cognitive processes

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include changes in the individual’s relationships with
other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. As babies, Naschielle and
Kenn responded with a sweet smile when affectionately touched and frowned when
displeased and even showed temper tantrum when they could not get or do what they
wanted. From aggressive children, they may develop into a fine lady and a gentleman or
otherwise, depending on a myriad of factors. They may fall in love and get inspired for life
or may end up betrayed, deserted and desperate afterwards. All these reflect the role of
socioemotional processes in development.

Socioemotional processes

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Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a
dimension expand, and others shrink. For example, when one language (such as English)
is acquired early in development, the capacity for acquiring second and third languages
(such as Spanish and Chinese) decreases later in development, especially after early
childhood. During adolescence, as individuals establish romantic relationships, their time
spent with friends may decrease.

Development Is Multidirectional

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Naschielle and Kenn will learn to sit, crawl then walk
before they can run. The muscular control of the trunk and the arms comes earlier as
compared to the hands and fingers. This is the proximodistal pattern. During infancy, the
greatest growth always occurs at the top - the head with physical growth in size, weight
and future differentiation gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so on). This is the cephalo-caudal pattern.
These development patterns are common to Naschielle and Kenn.

Development is relatively orderly.

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Naschielle and Kenn won’t develop into pimply
teenagers overnight. It takes years before they become one. In fact, that’s the way of
nature. The bud does not blossom suddenly. The seed does not germinate overnight.
While some changes occur in a flash of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or
years for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of developmental
characteristics.

Development takes place gradually

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Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
Individuals respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual’s
biological make up, physical environment, cognitive processes, historical, social and
cultural contexts. Naschielle’s and Kenn’s biological make up, social and cultural contexts
may vary and therefore make them develop differently from each other. Thus, individuals
are changing beings in a changing world. As a result of these changes, contexts exert
three types of influences: (1) normative age-graded influences, (2) normative historygraded influences, and (3) nonnormative or highly individualized life events.

Development is contextual

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Growth, maintenance and
regulation are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary
among developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and late
adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back stage while maintenance and
regulation take the center stage.

Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation

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As newborns, we were not empty-headed organisms.
We cried. Kicked, coughed, sucked, saw, heard and tasted. We
slept a lot and occasionally we smiled, although the meaning
of our smiles was not entirely clear.

Infancy and Toddlerhood (from birth 2 years)

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Our greatest untold poem was being
only four years old. We skipped, played, and ran all day long,
never in our lives so busy, busy becoming something we had
not quite grasped yet. Who knew our thoughts, which worked
up into small mythologies all our own.

Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)

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belonging to a generation and a feeling properly our
own. It is the wisdom of human development that at no
other time we are more ready to learn than at the end of
early childhood’s period of expansive imagination. Our thirst
was to know and to understand. Our parents continued to
cradle our lives but our growth was also being shaped by
successive choirs of friends. We did not think much about the future or the past, but enjoyed the
present.”

Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years)

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“In no order of things was adolescence, the
simple time of life for us. We clothed ourselves with
rainbows and went ‘brave as the zodiac’, flashing from
one end of the world to the other. We tried on one face
after another, searching for a face of our own. We
wanted our parents to understand us and hoped they
would give up the privilege of understanding them. We
wanted to fly but found that first we had to learn to
stand and walk and climb and dance. In our most
pimply and awkward moments we became
acquainted with sex.

Adolescence (13-18 years)

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is a time for work and a time for
love. sometimes leaving little time for anything else. For some of us. finding our place in adult society and committing to a more stable life take longer than we imagine. We still ask ourselves who we are and wonder
if it isn’t enough just to be. Our dreams continue and our thoughts are bold but at some point, we become more pragmatic. Sex and love are powerful passions in our
lives at times angels of light, at other times of torment.

Early adulthood (19-29 years)

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what we have been forms
what we will be. For some of us, middle age is such a
foggy place, a time when we need to discover what
we are running from and to and why. We compare our life with what we vowed to make it. In middle age,
more time stretches before us and some evaluations have to be made, however reluctantly. As the
young/old polarity greets us with a special force, we need to join the daring of youth with the discipline of
age in a way that does justice to both.

Middle adulthood (30-60 years)

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"The rhythm and meaning of human development eventually wend their way to late adulthood, when each of us stands alone at the heart of the earth and "suddenly it is evening." We shed the leaves of youth and are stripped by the winds of time down to the truth. We learn that life is lived forward but understood backward. We trace the connection between the end and the beginning of life and try to figure out what this whole show is about before it is over. Ultimately, we come to know that we are what survives of us.

Late adulthood (61 years and above)

In each stage of development, a certain task or tasks are expected of every individual. Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that arise at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks awhile failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks.”

Robert Havighurst 1972

There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst's six (6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal period. Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as two (2) separate stages. These developmental stages are described more in detail in the next paragraphs..

John Santrock

extends from conception to birth. It involves tremendous growth- from a single cell to an organism complete with behavioral capabilities

Prenatal period

extends from birth to 18 to 24 months. It is a time of extreme dependence on adults. Many activities are just beginning, such as language development, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination, and social learning.

Infancy

extends from the end of infancy to about 5 years. During this period, children become more self-sufficient, develop school readiness skills (such as learning to follow instructions and identify letters), and spend many hours with peers. First grade typically marks the end of early childhood.

Early childhood (sometimes called the “preschool years”)

extends from about 6 to 11 years of age. Children master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and math, achievement becomes a more central theme, and self-control increases. In this period, children interact more with the wider social world beyond their family.

Middle and late childhood (sometimes called the “elementary school years”)

Is the development period that goes from childhood to adulthood, beginning around ages 10 to 12 and ending in the late teens. Adolescence starts with rapid physical changes, including height and weight gains and development of sexual functions. Adolescents intensely pursue independence and seek their own identity. Their thought becomes more abstract, logical, and idealistic.

Adolescence

extends from late teen or early 20s lasting through the 30s. It is a time of establishing personal and economic independence, career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing children.

Early adulthood

It is the time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.

Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age)

It is the time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.

Late adulthood (60s and above).

Refers to an organisms biological inheritance

Nature

To its environmental experiences

Nurture

Gradual, cumulative change, continues quantitative changes

Continuity

Distinct stages, qualitative changes

Discontinuity

The result of heredity and possibly early experiences in life

Stability

Take the more optimistic view that later experiences can produce change

Change

An in-depth look at an individual

Case study

A research design that determines association

Correlational study

The only true reliable method of establishing cause and effect

Experimental

A research design that focuses on children's experiences in natural settings

Naturalistic observation

This research Design studies and follows through a single group over a period of time.

Longitudinal

Data are collected on a single occasions.

Cross-sectional

Is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or a part of community of practice to improve the way they adress issues and solve problems.

Action research

views about human development are more than a century old. He can be considered the most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting theory about the unconscious and also about sexual development.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking)

Oral Stage (birth to 18 months).

The child's focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces.

Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years).

an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control.

anal retentive

where the person may become messy and disorganized.

anal expulsive

The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During the preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different.

Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6).

It's during this stage that sexual urges remain Repressed. The children's focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.

Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty)

The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the earlier stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers, with the pleasure centered on the genitals

Genital Stage (puberty onwards)

Focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of needs (pleasure)

It is aware that others also have needs to be meet. It is practical, it reasons and considers the best response to situations ( Reality) (Needs and rules)

Ego

Embodies a person's moral aspect. Likened to conscience; it considers right or wrong (Morality) it balances the id and ego

Superego

Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both buried down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.

The Unconscious

Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.

The Conscious

The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Its right below the surface, but still "hidden" somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood friend is stored in the preconscious.

The Subconscious

Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of educational psychology. This theory fueled other researches and theories of development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.

Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

Piaget used the term "schema" to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an individual's way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience.

Schema

This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema.

Assimilation

This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different. He might try to fit it into his schema of a dog, and say, "Look mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too!" Then the mommy explains, "That's not a funny looking dog. That's a goat!" With mommy's further descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing cabinet.

Accommodation

Piaget believed that people have the natural need to understand how the world works and to find order, structure, and predictability in their life. Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.

Equilibration

The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The term sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world.

Sensori-motor Stage

This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.

Object permanence

It covers from about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature.

Pre-Operational Stage

This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a thing that represents something else.

Symbolic Function

This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others.

Egocentrism

This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects.

Centration

Pre-operational children still have the inability/ to reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2+ 3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.

Irreversibility

This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply, "Mr. Sun is asleep."

Animism

This refers to the pre-operational child's type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.

Transductive reasoning

This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.

Concrete-Operational Stage

This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations.

Decentering

This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. Because of the development of the child's ability of decentering and also reversibility, the concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but narrower container is still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass.

Conservation

This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.

Seriation

In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize

Formal Operational Stage

This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now deal with "What if' questions.

Hypothetical Reasoning

This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can make an analogy. If United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to _______. The individual will reason that since the UK is found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found in what continent? Then Asia is his answer. Through reflective thought and even in the absence of concrete objects, the individual can now understand relationships and do analogical reasoning.

Analogical reasoning

This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular instance situation. For example, all countries near the north pole have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature.

Deductive Reasoning

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving learning and trials which help us to grow. Erikson's enlightening theory guides us and helps to tell us why.

Erik Erikson (1930-1994)

It involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of the task, such as a person who can't trust others.

Malignancy

It is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much.

Maladaptation

It means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest of society. It requires that you take all you've learned about life and yourself and mold it into a unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful.

Ego identity

is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for the next generation and all future generations. As such, it is considerably less "selfish" than the intimacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between lovers or friends, is a love between equals, and it is necessarily mutual.

Generativity

on the other hand, is self-absorption, caring for no-one. The stagnant person stops to be a productive member of society.

Stagnation

Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)

The key theme of Vygotsky's theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development. He believed that individual development could not be understood without looking into the social and cultural context within which development happens.

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

is Vygotsky's term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task.

Scaffolding

came up with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the different factors that exert influence on an individual's development. It points out the everwidening spheres of influence that shape every individual, from his/her immediate family to the neighborhood, the country, even the world!

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)

Presents child development within the context of. relationship systems that comprise the child's environment.It describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect on the development of the child. Each layer is further made up of different structures.

Bioecological Systems theory

Is the layer nearest the child. It comprises structures which the child directly interacts with. It includes structures such as one's family, school, and neighborhood.

Microsystem

This layer serves as the connection between the structures of the child's microsystem. For example, the meso system will include the link or interaction between the parents and teachers, or the parent and health services or the community and the church.

Mesosystem

This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child does not function directly. This includes the city government, the workplace, and the mass media. The structures in this layer may influence the child's development by somehow affecting some structure in the child's microsystem.

Exosystem

This layer is found in the outermost part in the child's environment. The macrosystem includes the cultural values, customs, and laws. The belief system contained in one's macrosystem permeates all the interactions in the other layers and reaches the individual.

Macrosystem

It covers the element of time as it relates to a child's environments. This involves "patterns of stability and change" in the child's life. This involves whether the child's day is characterized by an orderly predictable pattern, or whether the child is subjected to sudden changes in routine.

Chronosystem