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Chemistry Flashcards

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1
Q

Drugs

A

Substances which alter the biochemical processes within the body

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2
Q

Medicines

A

Drugs with beneficial effects

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3
Q

Give a brief history of drugs

A

The first drugs came from plant brews
Pharmacologically active products in plant extracts were identified
These compounds and derivatives of them were synthesised where possible

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4
Q

How do medicines function

A

Most medicines work by bonding to receptors

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5
Q

Receptors

A

Usually protein molecules that are on the surface of cells where they interact with small biological molecules

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6
Q

Pharmacophore

A

the structural fragment of the molecule which gives it pharmacological activity

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7
Q

By comparing the structure of molecules the… can be identified

A

Pharmacophore

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8
Q

What can be done once the pharmacophore has been identified?

A

Chemists can design and synthesise potential medicines with a greater likelihood of success

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9
Q

Why does electromagnetic radiation differ from other radiation

A

It can travel through a vacuum

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10
Q

Different types of radiation have different…

A

wavelengths

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11
Q

What are the highest energy radiations

A

X-rays and gamma rays

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12
Q

X rays and gamma rays are packed so tightly they are less than the width of an atom, therefore they can be considered to act as….

A

Particles

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13
Q

Speed of light =

A

Frequency x wave length

(C= v x n

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14
Q

Wave number

A

Used for the interpretation of spectra in the ingraved region of the spectrum
The reciprocal of wavelength

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15
Q

Wave number =

A

1/ wavelength = v=1\ theta

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16
Q

Atoms become….when they absorb energy and their electrons move to a…

A

Excited….

Higher energy level

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17
Q

Emission spectra

A

Results from exited elections moving back down to lower energy levels

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18
Q

The frequency lines produced in the emissions spectrum corresponds to the….

A

Difference in energy between two energy levels

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19
Q

Each line in the spectrum has a precise….that corresponds to a

A

Frequency

Value of energy (photon of energy

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20
Q

Hydrogen has only one atom meaning…

A

The emissions spectra has different series of lines in different parts of the electronegativity spectrum
Depends on which level the electron falls to

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21
Q

Hydrogen spectra contains one series of lines in the…
One in the…
And several in the…

A

U-V region
Visible
I-R region

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22
Q

Lines in the visible spectrum correspond to electrons falling back to n=2 and are known as

A

The Balmer series

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23
Q

How does a pharmacophore effect receptors

A

The shape of the pharmacophore compliments that of the receptor site, allowing it to fit into the receptor
The functional groups on pharmacophores and receptors are correctly positioned to interact and bind

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24
Q

Agonists

A

Enhance the body’s natural responses (produces a response like the body’s natural compounds)

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25
Q

Antagonists

A

Block the body’s natural responses (produces no response but prevents the body’s naturally active compounds

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26
Q

Visible light

A

Only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum

A wider range would stretch from gamma rays to radio waves

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27
Q

When a beam of white light is passed through a prism (or diffraction grating) onto a white screen a …..is produced

A

Continuous spectrum i.e a rainbow

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28
Q

When atoms have been excited…

A

They emit light and other forms of energy

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29
Q

Name two ways atoms can be given extra energy

A

Heating a compound in a Bunsen burner or passing an electrical charge through vaporised atoms

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30
Q

If the light is viewed through a spectroscope….

A

The spectrum turns out to be a series of lines with different wavelengths
(And different colour colours in the Balmer series)

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31
Q

If a beam of white light radiation is passed through a gaseous sample of an element…

A

The radiation emerges has certain wavelengths missing. these show up as a dark line on a continuous spectrum

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32
Q

Absorption spectroscopy

A

Refers to spectroscopic techniques that measure the absorption of radiation as a function of frequency and wavelength due to its interaction with the sample

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33
Q

Spectra can be used to give information about….

A

How much of a species is present in a sample

Eg. Lead in drinking water or a foodstuff

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34
Q

When determining the level of lead in consumables, what are the steps taken

A

First a calibration graph is prepared from known concentrations of lead solutions
The radiation absorbed by this sample is plotted against the concentration and when an unknown sample is analysed the concentration of lead can be found on the graph

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35
Q

Name some properties of Electromagnetic radiation

A

has a wavelength and frequency and can travel through a vacuum at the speed of light

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36
Q

The higher the frequency…

A

The shorter the wavelength

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37
Q

Photons (Quanta)

A

‘Packets’ of Electromagnetic radiation

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38
Q

Energy of a photon related to frequency is given by:

A

E=hv

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39
Q

Planks constant

A

h=6.63x10^-34 Js^-1

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40
Q

Energy of 1 mole of photons related to frequency is given by:

A

E=Lhv

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41
Q

Avogadro’s constant (L)

A

6.02x10^23

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42
Q

C=

A

/lxv

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43
Q

Cis geometric isomers

A

Groups/ atoms are on the same side of the double bond

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44
Q

Trans geometric isomers

A

Groups/ atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond

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45
Q

Describe the changes of physical properties in geometric isomers

A

Geometric isomers display differences in some physical properties (melting point, boiling point)
It can also influence some chemical properties

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46
Q

Why do most geometric isomers contain a double bond

A

Single covalent bonds can easily rotate

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47
Q

Optical isomers

A

For some molecules the mirror image is a different molecule (the mirror image in non-superimposable)
Called Enantiomers
Distinguished by +/-, D/L, R/S

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48
Q

Chiral (optically active molecules)

A

When a molecule contains a Carbon atomic with four different groups attached

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49
Q

Racemic mixture

A

A 50/50 of two enantiomers

Optically inactive

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50
Q

As energy levels get further from the nucleus, they….

A

Get higher in energy as they get closer together

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51
Q

When an electron reaches the merged level it has effectively been….

A

Removed from the atom

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52
Q

Molecules that are optical isomers are called …

A

euantiomers

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53
Q

euantiomers have identical chemical and physical properties except for

A

Their effect on on plane polarised light

Their interaction with other chiral molecules

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54
Q

Normal light…

A

Vibrates in all directions

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55
Q

Plane polarised light

A

Vibrates in only one direction

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56
Q

What effect do optical isomers have on polarised light

A

They rotate the plane

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57
Q

Quantum mechanics consider electrons as…

A

Waves

Particles

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58
Q

Quantum numbers

A

Each electron and its energy can be defined by four quantum numbers

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59
Q

What are the 4 quantum numbers

A

Principle quantum number: n
Angular momentum quantum number: l
Magnetic quantum number: ml
Spin quantum number: ms

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60
Q

In the context of electron shells, the greater the value of n….

A

The greater the associated potential energy of the shell and the further it is from the nucleus

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61
Q

Subshells are defined by….

A

The angular momentum quantum number

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62
Q

In the context of subshells, the angular momentum quantum number..

A

Relates to the shape of the orbital and is given the values 0,1,2,3…ect (n-1)

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63
Q

Subshells are given the letters…

A

S,p,d, f

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64
Q

Electrons can be considered as acting as…

A

Particles and waves

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65
Q

Hersenbergs uncertainty principle

A

It is impossible to define with absolute certainty both the position and momentum of any electron at the same instance

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66
Q

Due to hersenbergs uncertainty principle all we can do when defining the position on an election is…

A

Define a region in space where the possibility of finding an electron is greater than 90%

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67
Q

Atomic orbital

A

The region in space where the probability of finding an electron is over 90%

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68
Q

The overall size of an orbital is governed by…

A

n, the principle atomic number

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69
Q

The actual shape of a orbital is given by…

A

The value L, the angular momentum quantum number

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70
Q

S-block

A

Groups 1-2

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71
Q

S orbitals

A

Spherical in shape

Diameter increasesas n increases

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72
Q

To find the multiplicity and spacial orientation of p,d and f orbital it is necessary to define..

A

The third quantum number: Ml the magnetic quantum number

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73
Q

Ml can have any integral value between…

A

-L and +L

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74
Q

P block elements

A

Groups 3 to 0

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75
Q

P orbitals

A

Have two lobes ♾

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76
Q

For p orbitals l=1 so there are three possible values of ML…..

A

-1,0,+1
Hence there will be three degenerated orbitals (ie, orbitals with equal energies)
As they have different Ml values they have different orientations in space

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77
Q

D- orbital

A

L=2

5 possible for ML (-2,-1,0,1,2)

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78
Q

For d- orbitals when n is greater than or equal to 3 there are…

A

5 degenerated orbitals

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79
Q

F-orbitals

A

L=3

7 possible values for ML(-3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3)

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80
Q

To completely identify an individual electron a fourth quantum number is required called

A

Spin quantum number, Ms

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81
Q

No two electrons and anyone atom can have the same…

A

Set of four quantum numbers

82
Q

Due to no two electrons in any atom having the same set of four quantum numbers what are some important assumptions we make?

A

The maximum number of electrons in any orbital is two

If there are any two electrons in the same orbitally must have opposite spins

83
Q

What are the two values a spin quantum number can have

A

+1/2

-1/2

84
Q

Mass spectrometry

A

Used to determine the accurate molecular mass and structural features of an organic compound

85
Q

In mass spectrometry, the peak with the highest M/Z ratio provides

A

the gram formula mass of the organic compound

86
Q

Base peak (mass spectrometry)

A

The most abundant peak (the tallest)

87
Q

Hund’s rule of Maximum Multiplicity

A

When electrons occupy degenerated orbitals the electrons fill each orbital singularly, keeping their spins parallel before spin pairing occurs

88
Q

The AUFBAU principle

A

Orbitals of lowest energy levels are always filled first

89
Q

The structure of the periodic table depends on…

A

The electron configuration of elements

90
Q

IR Spectroscopy use

A

Used to identify specific functional groups in organic compounds

91
Q

Describe how IR spectroscopy works

A

IR radiation is made up of a continuous range of frequencies. by shining these at organic compounds, sone are absorbed and some are not
Those absorbed cause parts of molecules to vibrate
The wavelengths which are absorbed depend on a type of chemical bond and groups or atoms at the end of these bonds

92
Q

Types of Bond Vibration

A

Bond bending

Bond stretching

93
Q

Bond stretching

A

Energy of the bond vibration depends on bond length, mass of atoms ect.
Therefore different bonds vibrate in different ways with different energies.
By shining IR radiation with exactly the right frequencies, you can kick the bond into a high state of energies

94
Q

Bond bending

A

Same principle applies as bond stretching but the frequency of the absorbed radiation differs

95
Q

Electron density

A

The attraction between the nuclei and electrons causes electron density to occur between the two nuclei (molecular orbital)

96
Q

We use different electronegatives to gauge….

A

The polarity of bonds between atoms

97
Q

In F2 the difference in electronegativities is 0 hence

A

It is non polar

98
Q

In HF the difference in electronegativities is 1.8 hence

A

Polar

99
Q

In liF the difference in electronegativities is 3 hence

A

Ionic (very polar)

100
Q

Bonded pairs

A

Electron pairs shared between two atoms

101
Q

Lone/ non-bonded pairs

A

An electron pair that remains on the atom are not shared

102
Q

Nuclear magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectrometry

A

User to gain information about the chemical environment of hydrogen atoms in organic molecules

103
Q

Describe the theory behind NMR

A

Hydrogen nuclei spin on their own axises, either clockwise or anti clockwise.
Absorption or radiation in the radio frequency region causes the low energy nuclei to flip to the higher energy orientation
The radiation emitted when the nuclei relax back to the low energy orientation is defected and plotted as a spectrum of lines

104
Q

Tetramethylsilane (TMS)

A 
The lines on a spectrum are positioned relative to a standard substance, this is typically TMS
The line (peak) produced by the 12 H atoms in TMS is set at zero
105
Q

Chemical shift

A

The position of other H atoms away from the TMS peak

106
Q

What 3 pieces of information can be gained from a spectrum

A

The number of different hydrogen environments
The number of hydrogen atoms in an environment
The number of hydrogen atoms on adjacent carbon atoms

107
Q

How does an NMR graph show the number of different hydrogen environments

A

Each hydrogen environment produces a peak at a different chemical shift
A chart of environments and chemical shifts is shown on pg16 on data booklet

108
Q

How does an NMR graph show the number of hydrogen atoms environments in each environment

A

The area under the peak of each environment gives the ratio of the number of hydrogen atoms present

109
Q

N+1 rule for NMR

A 
N= no of hydrogen 
N+1= number of adjacent h atoms
110
Q

How to write lewis dot diagrams

A

Calculate the total number of valency electrons

Find the central atom and number of bonds

111
Q

If there are two things around a central atom it could be a…

A

Linear molecule

112
Q

If there are three things around a central atom it could be a…

A

Trigonal planar

Bent

113
Q

If there are four things around a central atom it could be a…

A

Tetrahedral

Trigonal pyramidal

114
Q

If there are six things around a central atom it could be a…

A

Octahedral
Square pyramidal
Square planar

115
Q

The angle on a linear molecule is….

A

180°

116
Q

The angle on a trigonal planar is….

A

120°

117
Q

The angle on a bent molecule is….

A

116°

Or 105° if 4 things around central atom

118
Q

The angle on a tetrahedral molecule is….

A

109.5°

119
Q

The angle on a trigonal pyramidal molecule is….

A

107

120
Q

The angle on a octehedral molecule is….

A

90°

121
Q

The angle on a square pyramidal molecule is….

A

90°

122
Q

The angle on a square planar molecule is….

A

90°

123
Q

The shape of methane is…

A

Tetrahedral

124
Q

The shape of Ammonia is…

A

Trigonal pyramidal

125
Q

The shape of water is….

A

Bent

126
Q

What are some trigonal planar molecules

A

CH2O
BH3
BeF2

127
Q

What are some bent molecules

A

SH2

O3

128
Q

What are some linear molecules

A

BF2

CO2

129
Q

For elements Z =/> 21 the energy of the 3D sub shell is…

A

Higher than the energy of the 4S sub shell

130
Q

Describe the second ionise energy of potassium and why it bucks the trend

A

Involves the removal of an electron from a full 3P^6 stable arrangement and therefore has a relatively high second ionisation energy

131
Q

Describe the second ionise energy of chromium and why it bucks the trend

A

Involves the removal of an electron from a 3d^5 stable arrangement and therefore has a relatively high second ionisation energy

132
Q

Describe the second ionise energy of chromium and why it bucks the trend

A

Involves the removal of an electron from a full 3d^10 stable arrangement and therefore has a relatively high second ionisation energy

133
Q

Describe the third ionise energy of potassium and why it bucks the trend

A

The third electron is being removed from an inner sub shell subject to a lesser degree of electron shielding and a greater nuclear electrostatic force of attraction

134
Q

Describe the third ionise energy of calcium and why it bucks the trend

A

Involves the removal of an electron from a full 3p^6 stable arrangement and therefore has a relatively high second ionisation energy

135
Q

Describe the third ionise energy of manganese and why it bucks the trend

A

Involves the removal of an electron from a 3d^5 stable arrangement and therefore has a relatively high second ionisation energy

136
Q

Describe the fourth ionisation energy of potassium and Calcium and why it bucks the trend

A

The fourth electron is being removed from an inner sub shell subject to a lesser degree of electron shielding and a greater nuclear electrostatic force of attraction

137
Q

Describe the fourth ionisation energy of scandium and why it bucks the trend

A

Involves the removal of an electron from a full 3p^6 stable arrangement and therefore has a relatively high second ionisation energy

138
Q

Describe the fourth ionisation energy of iron and why it bucks the trend

A

Involves the removal of an electron from a 3d^5 stable arrangement and therefore has a relatively high second ionisation energy

139
Q

Molecular formula

A

The number of different atoms in a formula

140
Q

Structural formula

A

How the different atoms are arranged

141
Q

Empirical formula

A

The simple whole number ratio of atoms in a molecule

142
Q

Skeletal formula

A

Show how the carbon-carbon bond and functional groups are arranged.
Neither the carbon atoms or the hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms

143
Q

Atomic orbitals

A

The volume of space that the electrons of atoms are likely to be found

144
Q

When atomic orbitals overlap, they combine to form….

A

Molecular orbitals

145
Q

In the case of hydrogen, the overlap of two 1s orbitals results in the formation of a

A

sigma ( σ) molecule

146
Q

The shape of the molecular orbital formed from overlapping orbitals will govern

A

The type of intermolecular bonding that is observed

147
Q

Hybridisation

A

Assumes that the 2s and 2p orbitals of carbon atoms combine to form four degenerate orbitals
The sp^3 orbitals formed are half filled

148
Q

Sp^3 hybridised orbitals surrounding a central carbon atom results in a

A

tetrahedral shape with a maximum possible angle between each orbital of 109.5

149
Q

Carbon to carbon single bonds in alkanes result from…

A

Overlapping sp^3 orbitals forming σ bonds

150
Q

Double bonds are stronger but not twice as strong as σ bonds, this is because

A

They are made up of both a σ bond and a pie bond and sideways overlap (pie bond) is weaker than σ

151
Q

Hybridisation of Alkenes

A

An electron from the 2s shell is promoted to the 2p orbital. This results in the formation of three hybrid orbitals with one remaining unhybridised
Remaining 2p orbital
Formed from one s orbital and 2p orbitals is the sp^2 orbital

152
Q

Sp2 orbitals take a …..shape

A

Trigonal planar (bond angle 120°)

153
Q

In alkenes, Three sp^2 orbitals form sigma bonds with two hydrogen atoms and the other carbon atom. The unhybridised 2p orbital….

A

Overlap side on to form a pi bond

154
Q

What is the colour of organic compounds that contain only sigma bonds…

A

Colourless

155
Q

Why are organic compounds that contain only sigma bonds colourless

A

The σ bonding orbital is the HOMO and the σ* anti-bonding orbital is the LUMO
While they do absorb light the energy transition is very large (eg in the uv range)

156
Q

HOMO

A

Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital

157
Q

LUMO

A

Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital

158
Q

When the transition from HOMO to LUMO is large the colour of the compound will absorb in…

A

The UV region of the spectrum

159
Q

Conjugated system

A

Organic molecules that are coloured contain delocalised electrons spread over a number of atoms
Alternating double and single bonds

160
Q

The longer the conjugated system the smaller….

A

The energy gap between the delocalised orbital and the next unoccupied orbital

161
Q

Why are conjugated systems coloured

A

Exciting delocalised electronic requires less energy. If this falls within the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum it will result in the compounds appeared coloured

162
Q

Chromophore

A

A group of atoms with a molecule that is responsible for its colour

163
Q

If the chromophore absorbs light of one colour …

A

The complimentary colour is observed

164
Q

Dative bond

A

When both electrons in a covalent bond come from the same atom

165
Q

Resonance forms

A

Sometimes it is possible to draw more than one equivalent Lewis dot diagram for a single structure
The actual molecule is a hybrid of the resonance forms

166
Q

Resonance structure

A

And average of the resonance forms

167
Q

Why do transition metals have variable valences

A

Can loose 4S electrons and some or all of their 4D electrons to form positive ions

168
Q

What ions does scandium form

A

3+ ions

169
Q

What ions does zinc form

A

2+ ions

170
Q

bond fission

A

when an organic reaction takes place, bonds in the reactant molecules are broken and bonds in the product molecules are made

171
Q

homolytic fission

A

more likely when the bond is Non polar
sigma bond breaks evenly
it results in the formation of two neutral free radicals (atoms with unpaired electrons)

172
Q

heterolytic

A

this type of bond breaking is more likely when the bond is Polar
sigma bond breaks unevenly
results in the formation of positive and negative ions
the atoms with the largest electronegativity willa end up with both electrons

173
Q

reactions involving homolytic fission are unsuitable for organic synthesis as…

A

they tend to result in the formation of very complex mixtures of products.
heterolytic fissions result in far fewer products and so are better suited

174
Q

a single headed arrow shows the movement of …

A

a single electron

175
Q

a double headed arrow shows the movement of …

A

a pair of electrons

176
Q

the tail of a curly arrow shows…

A

where the electron/ pair of electrons originates

177
Q

single headed curly arrows tend to show the movement of electrons in…

A

Homolytic fission

178
Q

double headed curly arrows tend to show the movement of electrons in…

A

heterolytic fission

179
Q

in reactions involving heterolytic bond fission, attacking groups are classified as….

A

nucleophiles or electrophiles

180
Q

nucleophiles can be

A

negatively charged ions or neutral molecules that re electron rich
attracted towards atoms bearing partial or full positive charge
capable of donating an electron pair to form a new covalent bond

181
Q

electrophiles can be

A

positively charged ions or neutral molecules that re electron deficient
attracted towards atoms bearing partial or full negative charge
capable of accepting an electron pair to form a new covalent bond

182
Q

positively charged Carbocation

A

electrophile important as a reaction intermediate in many organic processes
vey unstable as it does not have a share of eight electrons
only makes three bonds
(unlikely for a carbon atom)
any situation which reduces the effective size of the positive charge on the carbon atom will stabilise the charge

183
Q

Tertiary carbocations are the most stable because…

A

they have more carbon atoms attached to the positively charged carbon atom and consequently have more electrons that can be attracted to the positive charge. this stabilises the ion

184
Q

addition reaction

A

normally happen when reactants are added across the double bond of alkenes or triple bonds of alkynes
in a typical reaction a small molecule is added to an alkene or alkyne.

185
Q

hydrogenation

A

two hydrogen atoms are added in an addition reaction

186
Q

hydration

A

a water molecule is added in an addition reaction

187
Q

hydroHalogenation

A

a hydrogen and a halogen atom are added in an addition reaction

188
Q

halogenation

A

two halogen atoms are added in an addition reaction

189
Q

the test for unsaturation is…

A

bromine water

an addition reaction

190
Q

haloalkanes

A

organic compounds which contain one or more halogen atoms

191
Q

to add water across the double bond you need an

A

acidic catalyst

192
Q

when alkenes and alkynes that contain more than two carbon atoms react with a small molecule ….

A

more than one product might form. if the two atoms being added to the alkene are different they each can be placed on the two carbons involved in the double bond

193
Q

markovnikov’s rule

A

the hydrogen atom of the small molecule will attach to the carbon of the double bond that is already bonded to the most hydrogen atoms

194
Q

elimination reaction

A

atoms are removed from an organic molecule and a double bond forms between the carbon atoms from which the atoms were removed
usually loses two atoms and the two products are formed

195
Q

the dehydration of alcohols to produce alkenes is an example of an

A

elimination reaction

196
Q

the dehydration of alcohols to produce alkenes requires…

A

a catalyst of concentrated sulphuric acid or concentrated phosphoric acid or aluminium oxide

197
Q

if an asymmetrical alcohol like butan-2-ol undergoes an elimination reaction…

A

two products are formed (but-1-ene and but-2-2ene)

198
Q

the removal of atoms on adjacent atoms of a haloalkane is an example of…

A

an elimination reaction

199
Q

the removal of atoms on adjacent atoms of a haloalkane requires…

A

a strong alkali such as sodium hydroxide dissolved in ethanol

200
Q

elimination reactions involving either alcohols or haloalkanes is a way of producing

A

alkenes (produced by heating under reflux)

Advanced Higher Chemistry (2 decks)

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