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Chemistry Flashcards

1
Q

What is the first step of the Scientific Method?

A

Observation: Identifying a phenomenon or pattern that prompts a question.

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2
Q

What is hypothesis formation?

A

Developing a testable, predictive statement based on observations.

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3
Q

What does experimentation involve?

A

Designing and performing tests to gather data.

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4
Q

What is the purpose of analysis in the Scientific Method?

A

Using statistical and logical methods to evaluate results.

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5
Q

What is the conclusion in the Scientific Method?

A

Summarizing findings and determining if they support the hypothesis.

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6
Q

What is peer review?

A

Ensuring reliability through review by other scientists.

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7
Q

What are some applications of science?

A

Includes medicine (e.g., drug development), environmental science (e.g., pollution control), and engineering (e.g., material innovation).

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8
Q

What are ethical issues in scientific applications?

A

Cloning, genetic modification, and animal testing pose moral questions.

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9
Q

How does science impact society?

A

The role of science in shaping public policy, health, and quality of life.

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10
Q

What are environmental concerns related to science?

A

Considering the ecological footprint of scientific advancements.

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11
Q

What is the scope limitation of science?

A

Science is limited to empirical, observable phenomena.

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12
Q

What is subjectivity in science?

A

Inability to address questions about personal values or aesthetic judgments.

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13
Q

What are technology constraints in scientific research?

A

Some phenomena are difficult to study due to current tech limits.

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14
Q

How do economic and social factors influence science?

A

Research funding and public opinion can influence what is studied.

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15
Q

What is the first step in identifying risks and hazards?

A

Identification: Recognizing possible dangers in procedures or chemicals (e.g., corrosive, toxic).

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16
Q

What does probability and severity assess?

A

Assessing the likelihood of occurrence and potential impact.

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17
Q

What are control measures in scientific safety?

A

Implementing safety protocols like fume hoods, gloves, and safety goggles.

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18
Q

What is the importance of documentation in risk assessment?

A

Recording hazards and safety measures as part of a risk assessment.

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19
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

The factor being changed.

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20
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

The measured outcome.

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21
Q

What are control variables?

A

Factors kept constant to ensure valid results.

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22
Q

What must hypothesis development be?

A

Specific, testable, and based on prior knowledge.

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23
Q

What is critical for experiment design?

A

Randomization, control groups, and sufficient sample size are critical for validity.

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24
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Measurable data, often numerical, such as temperature or mass.

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25
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Descriptive data, such as color change or texture.

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26
Q

Why is using calibrated instruments important?

A

Importance of using calibrated instruments (e.g., thermometers, balances).

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27
Q

What is essential for recording data?

A

Clear and accurate record-keeping, often in tables or lab notebooks.

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28
Q

What does data transformation involve?

A

Calculating averages, percentages, or changes from raw data.

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29
Q

What is statistical analysis?

A

Employing statistical methods to interpret data trends and significance.

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30
Q

What is error analysis?

A

Identifying potential errors (systematic vs. random) and their effects on results.

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31
Q

What is data interpretation?

A

Making sense of the results in the context of the hypothesis.

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32
Q

What are bar graphs used for?

A

Best for comparing discrete categories.

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33
Q

What are line graphs useful for?

A

Useful for showing trends over time or continuous data.

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34
Q

What do pie charts display?

A

Display parts of a whole, often used in percentage-based data.

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35
Q

What is important when interpreting data?

A

Recognizing trends, correlations, and outliers.

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36
Q

What are SI units?

A

Standard units for science (meters, kilograms, seconds, moles, etc.).

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37
Q

What are derived units?

A

Units like joules (energy) and newtons (force), based on SI units.

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38
Q

Why are unit conversions essential?

A

Essential for comparing data in different measurement systems (e.g., cm to m).

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39
Q

What is precision and accuracy in measurements?

A

Using appropriate decimal places and significant figures to reflect measurement accuracy.

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40
Q

What is conclusion drawing?

A

Relating results back to the hypothesis.

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41
Q

How do you evaluate reliability?

A

Checking if the results are consistent and repeatable.

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42
Q

What does evaluating validity involve?

A

Determining if the experiment accurately tests the hypothesis.

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43
Q

What are suggestions for improvement in experiments?

A

Identifying sources of error and how to reduce them in future experiments.

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44
Q

What do chemical equations represent?

A

Reactants and products: Substances before and after a reaction.

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45
Q

What is the conservation of mass?

A

Law stating matter cannot be created or destroyed.

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46
Q

What are balancing techniques in chemical equations?

A

Adding coefficients to ensure equal numbers of atoms on each side of the equation.

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47
Q

Give an example of a simple chemical reaction.

A

H₂ + O₂ → H₂O

Simple reactions like H₂ + O₂ → H₂O.

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48
Q

What are state symbols in chemical equations?

A

Indicating physical states: (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas, (aq) for aqueous solution.

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49
Q

What are ionic equations?

A

Only showing ions involved in the reaction, ignoring spectator ions.

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50
Q

What are half-equations?

A

Representing oxidation and reduction separately in redox reactions.

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51
Q

What are safety symbols?

A

Recognizing symbols for toxicity, flammability, corrosiveness, etc.

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52
Q

What is the purpose of Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)?

A

Information on handling, storage, and disposal of chemicals.

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53
Q

What is personal protective equipment (PPE)?

A

Gear like gloves, goggles, and lab coats to reduce exposure.

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54
Q

What should you do in case of chemical spills?

A

Follow emergency procedures for chemical spills, burns, or inhalation.

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55
Q

What is Dalton’s model of the atom?

A

Atoms as indivisible particles, each element unique.

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56
Q

What did Thomson’s model discover?

A

Discovery of the electron, leading to the ‘plum pudding’ model.

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57
Q

What did Rutherford’s model reveal?

A

Gold foil experiment revealed a dense nucleus surrounded by electrons.

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58
Q

What is the Bohr model?

A

Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific shells or energy levels.

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59
Q

What is the modern quantum model of the atom?

A

Electrons in probability clouds rather than fixed orbits.

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60
Q

What does the nucleus of an atom contain?

A

Contains protons (positive) and neutrons (neutral), accounting for most atomic mass.

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61
Q

What are electron shells?

A

Electrons (negative charge) occupy energy levels around the nucleus.

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62
Q

What is the atomic number?

A

Atomic number = number of protons.

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63
Q

What is the mass number?

A

Mass number = protons + neutrons.

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64
Q

What are isotopes?

A

Variants of an element with the same number of protons but different neutrons.

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65
Q

What is relative atomic mass (Ar)?

A

Weighted average of isotopes based on their natural abundance.

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66
Q

How is relative atomic mass calculated?

A

Using isotopic masses and relative abundances (e.g., for chlorine).

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67
Q

What were early attempts at creating the periodic table?

A

Newlands’ Law of Octaves, Mendeleev’s table ordered by atomic mass.

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68
Q

What did Mendeleev’s predictions involve?

A

Left gaps for undiscovered elements, predicted properties.

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69
Q

How is the modern periodic table organized?

A

Organized by atomic number rather than mass, which resolved issues with isotope placement.

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70
Q

What are groups and periods in the periodic table?

A

Vertical columns (groups) have similar properties; horizontal rows (periods) show repeating patterns.

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71
Q

Where are metals and nonmetals located on the periodic table?

A

Metals on the left, nonmetals on the right, separated by a ‘staircase.’

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72
Q

What are trends observed in the periodic table?

A

Atomic size decreases across a period, reactivity varies across and down groups.

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73
Q

What do energy levels represent?

A

Electrons occupy specific energy levels around the nucleus.

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74
Q

What is shell notation?

A

Configurations written as numbers (e.g., 2,8,1 for sodium).

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75
Q

What are orbital diagrams?

A

More detailed representations, showing electron arrangement in s, p, d, and f orbitals.

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76
Q

Why are electronic configurations important?

A

Outer (valence) electrons determine reactivity and type of bonding.

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77
Q

How are ions formed?

A

Atoms gain or lose electrons to form stable ions (like Na⁺, Cl⁻).

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78
Q

What is electrostatic attraction?

A

Positive and negative ions attract each other to form ionic bonds.

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79
Q

What are common ions?

A

Monatomic ions (single atoms) and polyatomic ions (like NO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻).

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80
Q

What is ionic bonding?

A

Metals lose electrons, nonmetals gain electrons to achieve stable electron configurations.

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81
Q

What is a lattice structure?

A

Ions arranged in a repeating 3D pattern, maximizing attraction and minimizing repulsion.

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82
Q

What are properties of ionic compounds?

A

High melting/boiling points, solubility in water, conductivity when melted or dissolved.

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83
Q

What are properties of ionic solids?

A

Brittle, high melting point due to strong ionic bonds.

84
Q

How do ionic compounds behave in water?

A

Many dissolve in water as the ions interact with water molecules.

85
Q

When do ionic compounds conduct electricity?

A

Conductive when liquid or in solution, as ions are free to move.

86
Q

What is covalent bonding?

A

Nonmetals share electrons to achieve stable configurations.

87
Q

What are single, double, and triple bonds?

A

Number of shared electron pairs (e.g., H₂O has two single bonds).

88
Q

What does VSEPR theory predict?

A

Shapes based on electron repulsion (e.g., tetrahedral for methane).

89
Q

What are intermolecular forces?

A

Weak forces between molecules (e.g., Van der Waals, hydrogen bonds).

90
Q

What are properties of simple molecular substances?

A

Low melting/boiling points, do not conduct electricity.

91
Q

Give examples of simple molecular substances.

A

Water (H₂O), methane (CH₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂).

92
Q

What are giant covalent structures?

A

Large, lattice-like structures (e.g., diamond, graphite).

93
Q

What are the properties of giant covalent structures?

A

Extremely high melting points, hard (diamond) or soft (graphite).

94
Q

How are atoms bonded in giant covalent structures?

A

Every atom covalently bonded to others in a network.

95
Q

What is the electron sea model?

A

Valence electrons are free to move among metal cations.

96
Q

What are properties of metals?

A

Conductivity, malleability, ductility due to mobile electrons.

97
Q

Give examples of metals.

A

Copper, iron, aluminum.

98
Q

What are the states of matter?

A

Solid, Liquid, Gas: Distinct properties due to particle arrangement and movement.

99
Q

What are changes of state?

A

Melting, freezing, condensation, and sublimation.

100
Q

What does the kinetic theory describe?

A

Describes behavior of particles in different states.

101
Q

What is a pure substance?

A

A material with only one type of particle (element or compound), with a sharp melting/boiling point.

102
Q

What effect do impurities have on melting points?

A

Lower melting points and broadened melting ranges; impurities in boiling increase the boiling point.

103
Q

How can purity be tested?

A

Using melting/boiling point data to identify pure substances versus mixtures.

104
Q

What is simple distillation?

A

Separates a solvent from a solution (e.g., water from salt water) by boiling and condensation.

105
Q

What is fractional distillation?

A

Separates mixtures of liquids with different boiling points, such as crude oil.

106
Q

What is the application of distillation?

A

Used in industries and laboratories for purifying substances or separating liquid mixtures.

107
Q

What is filtration?

A

Separates an insoluble solid from a liquid using a porous barrier (e.g., sand from water).

108
Q

What is crystallization?

A

Separates a soluble solid from a solution by evaporating the solvent to leave crystals (e.g., salt from seawater).

109
Q

What is important when choosing a separation method?

A

Deciding based on physical properties like solubility, boiling point, or particle size.

110
Q

What techniques are used for separation?

A

Filtration, distillation, and chromatography depending on whether the mixture is homogeneous or heterogeneous.

111
Q

What is paper chromatography?

A

Components of a mixture separate based on solubility and interaction with a stationary phase (paper) and mobile phase (solvent).

112
Q

What is the Rf value?

A

Ratio of distance traveled by substance to distance traveled by solvent; helps identify substances.

113
Q

What are applications of chromatography?

A

Used to identify dyes, inks, and other pigments by comparing Rf values with known substances.

114
Q

How is chromatography used in analyzing ink composition?

A

Separates different pigments in ink, which can then be identified based on Rf values.

115
Q

What is the importance of water treatment?

A

Ensuring safe drinking water by removing contaminants and pathogens.

116
Q

What processes are involved in water treatment?

A

Filtration: Removes large particles. Sedimentation: Settling of heavier particles. Chlorination: Adding chlorine to kill bacteria and pathogens. Desalination: Removing salt from seawater, often using reverse osmosis for areas without fresh water sources.

117
Q

What are the properties of acids?

A

Taste sour, turn blue litmus red, and have pH <7.

118
Q

What are the properties of bases?

A

Taste bitter, turn red litmus blue, and have pH >7.

119
Q

Give examples of an acid and a base.

A

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) as an acid; sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as a base.

120
Q

What does the pH scale measure?

A

Measures acidity or alkalinity, with 7 being neutral.

121
Q

What is a neutralization reaction?

A

Acid + Base → Salt + Water (e.g., HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O).

122
Q

What are applications of neutralization reactions?

A

Used in antacids to neutralize stomach acid, in agriculture to adjust soil pH.

123
Q

What are indicators?

A

Litmus paper, phenolphthalein, and methyl orange help to visualize pH changes in these reactions.

124
Q

What are strong acids?

A

Fully ionize in water (e.g., HCl, H₂SO₄), releasing more H⁺.

125
Q

What is the general reaction type for neutralization?

A

Acid + Base → Salt + Water (e.g., HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O).

126
Q

What are some applications of neutralization reactions?

A

Used in antacids to neutralize stomach acid, in agriculture to adjust soil pH.

127
Q

What indicators are used to visualize pH changes in acid-base reactions?

A

Litmus paper, phenolphthalein, and methyl orange.

128
Q

What characterizes strong acids?

A

Strong acids fully ionize in water (e.g., HCl, H₂SO₄), releasing more H⁺ ions.

129
Q

What characterizes weak acids?

A

Weak acids partially ionize in water (e.g., acetic acid), leading to fewer H⁺ ions in solution.

130
Q

How do the pH levels of strong and weak acids compare?

A

Strong acids have lower pH compared to weak acids of the same concentration.

131
Q

What happens when acids react with metals?

A

Produces salt and hydrogen gas (e.g., 2HCl + Mg → MgCl₂ + H₂).

132
Q

What happens when acids react with metal oxides?

A

Produces salt and water (e.g., H₂SO₄ + CuO → CuSO₄ + H₂O).

133
Q

What happens when acids react with metal carbonates?

A

Produces salt, water, and carbon dioxide (e.g., 2HCl + CaCO₃ → CaCl₂ + H₂O + CO₂).

134
Q

What is the process of making soluble salts?

A

Neutralization: Mixing acid with an appropriate base or carbonate.

135
Q

What is crystallization in the context of making soluble salts?

A

Evaporating water from the solution to form solid crystals of the salt.

136
Q

What are some applications of making soluble salts?

A

Produces salts for use in foods, cleaning agents, and pharmaceuticals.

137
Q

What is electrolysis?

A

Decomposition of compounds using electric current.

138
Q

What occurs during the electrolysis process?

A

Ions move to electrodes where they gain/lose electrons, forming new substances.

139
Q

What are examples of electrolysis?

A

Electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and oxygen; electrolysis of NaCl produces chlorine and sodium hydroxide.

140
Q

What are the electrode reactions in electrolysis?

A

Cations move to the cathode (negative), anions to the anode (positive).

141
Q

What determines the products of electrolysis?

A

Depends on reactivity of ions; e.g., in aqueous solutions, hydrogen or oxygen may be produced.

142
Q

What are applications of electrolysis?

A

Extraction of metals, electroplating, and purification of metals like copper.

143
Q

How does electrolysis of copper sulfate work?

A

Electrodes of copper used in a copper sulfate solution, with copper ions plating onto the cathode.

144
Q

What are the applications of electrolysis of copper sulfate?

A

Used in electroplating industries to coat objects with a layer of copper.

145
Q

What happens during the purification of copper?

A

Impurities are left behind as sludge while pure copper is deposited.

146
Q

What is oxidation?

A

Loss of electrons.

147
Q

What is reduction?

A

Gain of electrons.

148
Q

What are redox reactions?

A

Involves both oxidation and reduction; critical in metal extraction and battery chemistry.

149
Q

What are applications of redox reactions?

A

Used in processes like corrosion prevention and electroplating.

150
Q

What is the reactivity series?

A

Metals arranged by their tendency to lose electrons.

151
Q

Which metals are highly reactive?

A

Potassium, sodium, calcium.

152
Q

Which metals are very unreactive?

A

Gold and platinum.

153
Q

How does reactivity affect extraction methods?

A

Reactive metals need electrolysis, while less reactive metals can be extracted by reduction.

154
Q

What is a displacement reaction?

A

A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its compound (e.g., Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu).

155
Q

What is the redox aspect of displacement reactions?

A

One substance is oxidized, the other is reduced.

156
Q

What are the uses of displacement reactions?

A

Used to obtain metals from their compounds and in galvanic cells.

157
Q

What methods are used to extract metals from their ores?

A

Reduction with carbon for metals like iron, electrolysis for more reactive metals like aluminum.

158
Q

What is a blast furnace used for?

A

Used for iron extraction, where carbon reduces iron oxide to produce iron.

159
Q

What is the environmental impact of mining and extraction?

A

Can lead to pollution and habitat destruction.

160
Q

How are metals like aluminum extracted?

A

From molten salts via electrolysis.

161
Q

What are the requirements for extracting metals via electrolysis?

A

High energy due to high temperatures needed to melt the ores.

162
Q

What are alternative methods of extracting metals?

A

Phytomining and bioleaching.

163
Q

What is phytomining?

A

Uses plants to absorb metal ions from soil, then harvests and burns them to extract metals.

164
Q

What is bioleaching?

A

Uses bacteria to extract metals from low-grade ores.

165
Q

What are the advantages of alternative extraction methods?

A

More sustainable and less energy-intensive than traditional methods.

166
Q

What is the importance of recycling metals?

A

Reduces need for new raw materials, conserves resources, and lowers environmental impact.

167
Q

What processes are involved in recycling metals?

A

Metals are melted down and reformed into new products.

168
Q

What are the benefits of recycling metals?

A

Saves energy compared to extracting metals from ores and reduces landfill waste.

169
Q

What is a life cycle assessment?

A

Evaluates environmental impact of products from production to disposal.

170
Q

What considerations are included in a life cycle assessment?

A

Raw material extraction, energy consumption, transportation, and waste management.

171
Q

How do life cycle assessments help companies?

A

Helps companies make sustainable choices and improve product designs.

172
Q

What are reversible reactions?

A

Reactions that can proceed in both directions (forward and reverse), symbolized by a double arrow (⇌).

173
Q

What is dynamic equilibrium?

A

In a closed system, forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate, leading to a stable concentration of reactants and products.

174
Q

What is an example of a reversible reaction?

A

The Haber process (N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃) is a key industrial example.

175
Q

What is Le Chatelier’s Principle?

A

If a system at equilibrium experiences a change in concentration, pressure, or temperature, the equilibrium will shift to counteract the change.

176
Q

What happens to equilibrium when reactants are increased?

A

Shifts equilibrium to the right (favoring products).

177
Q

What happens to equilibrium when products are added?

A

Shifts equilibrium to the left.

178
Q

What happens to equilibrium when pressure is increased?

A

Favors the side with fewer gas molecules.

179
Q

What happens to equilibrium when temperature is increased?

A

Favors the endothermic reaction (absorbing heat).

180
Q

What are applications of Le Chatelier’s Principle?

A

Used in chemical industries to maximize yields, such as in the synthesis of ammonia or sulfuric acid.

181
Q

What are qualitative tests in chemical analysis?

A

Flame tests, precipitation reactions, and identification of gases.

182
Q

What do flame tests identify?

A

Metal ions based on flame color (e.g., sodium produces a yellow flame).

183
Q

What are precipitation reactions used for?

A

To react specific ions to form characteristic precipitates.

184
Q

What are some tests for identifying gases?

A

The “pop” test for hydrogen, limewater test for carbon dioxide, and damp litmus test for chlorine.

185
Q

What are the advantages of instrumental methods in chemical analysis?

A

More accurate, faster, and sensitive compared to traditional methods.

186
Q

What is mass spectrometry used for?

A

Determines molecular mass and structure.

187
Q

What does infrared spectroscopy identify?

A

Functional groups in organic molecules.

188
Q

What is chromatography used for?

A

Separates mixtures and identifies components, useful in forensic science and environmental analysis.

189
Q

What is relative atomic mass (Ar)?

A

Weighted average mass of an atom compared to 1/12 of a carbon-12 atom.

190
Q

What is relative formula mass (Mr)?

A

Sum of the relative atomic masses in a compound’s formula.

191
Q

How is relative mass used in calculations?

A

To determine the mass of compounds in chemical reactions and predict product quantities.

192
Q

What is the law of conservation of mass?

A

In a closed system, mass remains constant in chemical reactions.

193
Q

What are the implications of the conservation of mass?

A

The mass of products equals the mass of reactants.

194
Q

How does conservation of mass apply to balancing equations?

A

Helps ensure that all atoms are accounted for in the products.

195
Q

What is an empirical formula?

A

The simplest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound.

196
Q

How do you calculate empirical formulae?

A

Divide the moles of each element by the smallest mole value to find ratios.

197
Q

What is concentration in chemistry?

A

Amount of solute per unit volume of solution, usually expressed in moles per liter (mol/L).

198
Q

How is concentration calculated?

A

Concentration = Amount of solute / Volume of solution.

199
Q

What is the importance of concentration calculations?

A

Important for calculating reactants needed in reactions and preparing solutions in labs.

200
Q

How do you calculate masses from equations?

A

Using balanced equations to relate moles of reactants to moles of products.

201
Q

What is stoichiometry?

A

Essential in predicting product amounts and ensuring reactants are used efficiently.

202
Q

What is the definition of a mole?

A

One mole contains 6.02 *10^23 particles (Avogadro’s number).

203
Q

What is molar mass?

A

Mass of one mole of a substance, equal to the relative formula mass in grams.

204
Q

How are conversions between grams, moles, and particles done?

A

Using molar mass and Avogadro’s number.

205
Q

What are mole ratios?

A

Based on balanced chemical equations to determine the proportions of reactants and products.

206
Q

What is a limiting reactant?

A

The reactant that is completely consumed first, determining the maximum amount of product formed.

207
Q

How do you calculate theoretical yield?

A

Calculate moles of reactants/products to find theoretical yield and compare with actual yield.

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