Chapther 1,3-6 Flashcards
Priori method
A belief that develops as a result of logical argument, before a person has direct experience with the phenomenon at hand.
What is the source we judge and accept the validity to be expected in?
AUTHORITY
Empiricism
learning progress through direct observation/ experience, and reflection on theses experiences.
The difficulty of our experiences that are necessarily limited, interpretations can be by numerous__________?
Social cognition bias
Belief perseverance
Unwillingness to consider evidence that contradicts a strongly held view; similar to peirce’s principle of tenacity
Confirmation bias
Tendency to search out or pay special attention to information that supports ones beliefs while ignoring information that contradicts a belief
Availability heuristic
Occurs when one experiences unusual or familiar events then, overestimate how often such events typically occur.
The most reliable way to develop a belief is through ______?
Science
Science______ allow us to know __________ , whose characters independent of our opinions about them.
Procedures……real things
Determinism
Assumptionthat all events have causes
Discoverability
Assumption made that causes of events can be explained by scientific methods.
Objectivity
When observations can be verified by more than one observer.
Introspection
Method that individuals complete a task then describe events occurring while performing the task.
Data driven
Research belief; conclusions about behavior should be supported by data collected scientifically
Empirical questions
; answered by observation and techniques that characterize scientific methodology.
Anecdotal evidence
Evidence from a single case that illustrates a phenomenon ; in pseudoscience conclusion drawn easily
Effort justification
The amount effort given causes people to feel pressured to convince themselves the effort was worthwhile.
Description
behaviors are adequately classified and behavioral events are accurately listed
Explanation
A goal of science in which the causes of events are sought
Application
A goal of science which basic principle discovered through scientific methods are applied to solve problems
Predictions
statements about the future occurrence of behavioral. Events are made , usually with probability
Laws
Predictable relationships between events
Ethics
Set of standards governing the conduct of a person or the members of a profession
Critical incidents
used by ethics committee to surveys psychologist and ask for examples of unethical behavior
Applied research
Direct and immediate relevance to the solution of real -world problems
Basic reasearch
Research concerning description, predicting, and explaining fundamental principles of behavior and mental progress.
Labortary research
Control conditioned studies ; be specified more precisely and partisans can be selected to differnt conditions of the study ; systematic
Field research
Environment dependent;
Mundane realism
How closely a study mirrors real life experiences
Experimental realism
The depth to which participants become involved in the experiment ; considered more important than mundane realism
Confederate
A subject in an experiment , who’s a part of the experiment
Manipulation check
Debriefing ; procedure to determine if subjects were aware of a deception experiment true purpose
Pilot study
Initial stages of research ; data is collected , any problems spotted researcher can refine and prevent anymore flaws in full scale study
Qualitative research
Narrative analysis of information collected in the study ; can include case studies
Quantitative research
Results are presented as numbers , typically in the form of descriptive and inferential stats
Operationism
Philosophy that scientific concepts should be defined in terms of set operations to be preformed
Operational definitions
Definition of concept/ variable ; describes procedure, measures , or operations
Converging operations
Occurs when the results of several studies , each employing slightly different operational def, ; coverage same conclusion
Serendipity
Discovering something while looking for something else entirely
Theroy
Set of logically consistent statements about some phenomenon, summarizing and organizing existing information .
Construct
Hypothetical factor that is not observed directly
Deduction
Reasoning from general to specific ; used when deriving research hypothesis from theroies.
Induction
Logical process of reasoning from specific events to general events
Productivity
Good therioes, advanced knowledge by generating a great deal of research , an attribute that can be applied to dissonance study.
Falsification
Research strategy , that emphasis putting theories to the test by trying to disprove or falsify them
Parsimonious
Describing a theory that includes the minimum number of constructs and assumptions in order to explain and predict some phenomenon adequately.
Programs of research
Series of interrelated studies in which the outcome leads to another
Research teams
A group group of people working on same research problem
Replication
The duplication of an experiment
Extension
A replication of prior study that includes additional features
Partial replication
Repeats a portion of some prior research
Creative thinking
A process of making an innovative connection between seemingly unrelated ideas or events
Realiable
If results are repeatable when the behaviors are re measured
Valid
If it measures what it is designed to measure
Content validity
Concerns if actual content or not is making sense in terms of the construct being measured
Face validity
Not a valid form ! ; concerns if measure SEEMS valid to those who are taking it. The point is to make participants treat like a serious matter
Criterion validity
If measure is accurately forecasting some future behavior or meaningfully related to other measure of behavior
Construct validity
The adequacy of a tested construct and it directly connects with familiar construct
Convergent validity
When scores are correlated to a designed measure ( ie self esteem) on other test theoretically related to the construct
Discriminate validity
When scores are Uncorrelated to a designed measure ( ie self esteem) on other test theoretically related to the construct
Measurement scales
4 ways of assigning numbers to events
Nominal scale
Classify numbers; ie who more likely to volunteer females or males? F=44 m=10
Ordinal scale
Ranking numbers; 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th…etc
Interval scale
Equal interval between ordered events; ie on highways the mile signs or numbered exits
Ratio scale
Has true zero point; measures height, weight, time
Population
All members of defined group
Sample
Subset of that defined group
Descriptive stats
Summarizes data collected from sample of study
Inferential stats
Draw conclusion about your data that can be applied to wider population
Standard deviation
Set of sample scores in an estimate of average amount by which scores deviate from the mean score
Variance
Number produced by standard deviation calculation
Null hypothesis
No difference;
Alternative hypothesis
Outcome hoping to find out
Type 1error
Rejecting null when it’s true
Type 2 error
FAIL to reject null ; didn’t find significant effect in the study
Error variance
Non- systematic variability due to individual differences between two groups and unpredictable effects that occur during study
Systematic variance
Factor experimentor failed to control adequately
Effect size
Provides an estimate of the magnitude of the difference among set scores / taking in account amount of variability in scores
Meta-analysis
The combined results ( effect sizes) of experiments that used same variable to get a significant result
Power
Chances of finding a significant difference when null is false , alpha dependent, effect size, and sample size
Independent variable
Factor if interest to experimentor; the one being studied.
Experiment
Directly varies some factor to hold all other factors constant
Situational variables
Features in the environment that participants might encounter
Task variables
Independent variable type: participants are given different types of task to preform
Instructional variables
Participants are given different sets of instructions about how to preform .
Experimental group
First situation where treatment is present
Control group
Treatment is withheld; being evaluated in study
Comparison means
Extraneous variables
Variables of no interest to researcher ; might influence behavior being studied
Confound
Any uncontrolled extraneous variable that disrupts the independent variable ; creates alternative explanation of results
Dependent variable
Used to describe behaviors that measure outcomes of experiments
Subject variables
Independent variable type: is selected rather than manipulated by experimenter.
Statistical conclusion validity
Is when researcher uses stats properly and draws appropriate conclusions from the analysis
External validity
Extent to the findings of a. Study generalized to other populations, other settings, and other times.
Internal validity
Degree of experiment is methodologically sound and confound free
Subject selection effects
Threat to internal validity of study. When participants can’t be randomly assigned to groups. Not equal groups
Attrition
Threat to internal validity ; participant fail to complete study
Regression to the mean
If scores on test are extremely high or low ; if pretext scores are extremely different to pots test scores
Between -subjects design
Experimental design in which different groups of participants serve in the different conditions of study
Within subject design
Experimental design in which participants SERVE in each condition of the study
Random assignment
Uses volunteers in the study
Random selection
Picking non volunteering people at random to be part of study
Matching
Procedure to create equal groups ; dependent variable
Matching variable
Variable selected for matching participants in a matching groups study
Order effect
Occur within subjects design; participation in one study influences performance in another condition
Carryover effect
Systematic changes in performance occur as result of completing one sequence of conditions rather than a different sequence
Progress effect
Within subjects design; order effect which the accumulated effects are assumed to be the same from trial to trial
Counter balancing
To control order effects use more than one sequence
Complete counterbalancing
Every possible sequence will be used at once
Partial counter balancing
When subset of all possible orders of conditions is used in a within subject design
Cross- sectional study
Design in which age is independent variable and different groups of people are tested ; each group is diff age
Longitudinal study
A design in which age is independent and same group of people are tested repeatedly AT diff ages
Cohort effects
Group of people born about the same time
Cohort sequential design
Design that combines cross sectional and longitudinal designs ; studied periodically
Experiment bias
Experimenters expectations about study affect outcome
Double blind
Participants and experimenter are not included in the actual intention and factors being tested in experiment
Single blind
Only participants are not made aware of what I actually being tested/ observed
Protocols
Description of research procedure
Subject bias
Subjects behavior is influenced by their beliefs about how they are supposed to behave in study
Ex Hawthorne effect
