Chapters 5-9 Exam Flashcards
what is learning?
A relatively permanent change in how an organism responds or may respond resulting from experience.
what must happen before we know learning took place?
it must be demonstrated
what is latent learning?
Learning that happened but isn’t demonstrated/displayed until a later time.
what is a unconditioned response?
the body’s natural response to a stimulus
what is the unconditioned stimulus?
The stimulus that would normally trigger an automatic reflexive response in us
what is classical conditioning?
a procedure by which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after it is paired with an unconditoned stimulus that automatically elects that same response
what is the acquisition of a conditioned response?
When a neutral stimulus begins to pick up the properties of the unconditioned stimulus because the two are paired or associated
what is the conditioned stimulus?
Once neutral stimuli that elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus
what is the conditioned response?
The response to the condition stimuli, which is the same as the unconditioned response
what is the optimal timing of the UCS-CS pairing?
Optimal timing is to present the NS/CS about a half second before the UCS
what happens if UCS and CS are no longer paired?
Gradual extinction of the conditioned response
what is prepared learning?
the idea that humans are biologically “prepared” to make associations more readily to stuff from our evolutionary past (ex: easier to fear heights than guns/cars because we’re biologically primed to do so easier)
when do conditioned taste eversions happen?
when tastes are very strong and distinctive
what are conditioned taste eversions?
when one hates the taste of a specific food (neutral stimuli) because it’s taste got paired with an unconditoned stimulus such as nauseas, causing unconditioned response like throwing up
what can phobias be thought of in terms of conditioned responses?
Phobias can be thought of as conditioned emotional/fear responses
what 3 ways can a phobia be classically conditioned?
- direct personal experience
- vicarious conditioning
- direct modelling
what is vicarious conditioning? give an example.
when someone is classically conditioned by someone else’s actions
ex: little brother gets bit by a dog, so now you fear dogs
what is direct modelling in terms of classical conditioning and phobias?
Straight up mimicking of the phobic responses witnessed around them
what are fetishes? how do they relate to classical and operant conditioning?
An unusual sexual attraction to things, rituals, clothing, and other non-human objects.
May start with accidental CC and then be reinforced and entrenched via repeated masturbatory fantasy (operant condoning)
what is stimulus generalization?
When things similar to the condioned stimulus elicit the condioned response too
what is stimulus discrimination?
When only the conditioned stimulus, not other things, elicit the conditioned response
why is John Watson an asshole?
he classically condoned an innocent toddler to be afraid of fluffy white toys
what is the idea behind operant conditioning?
whether a behaviour will occur again or not depends on its outcome
what is Skinner and Thorndyke’s “law of effect”?
the idea that behaviours that are rewarded or “reinforced” are more likely to be repeated, those that are punished are less likely to be repeated.
According of Skinner and Thorndyke, behaviour is shaped by _________.
consequences
what are discriminative stimuli?
These are cues in the situation that alert us as to what the consequences of certain behaviours might be
what is positive reinforcement?
when something rewarding is added, making us more likely to repeat the action that warranted the reward
what is negative reinforcement?
when something adverse or unpleasant is taken away, making us more likely to repeat the action to get rid of the adverse stimulus
both positive and negative reinforcement make the behaviours more likely to ________.
re-occur
what are escape responses? are the positive or negative?
responses that work to stop an aversive stimulus, making them more likely to happen again
they’re negative
what are avoidance responses?
what happens when we simply avoid actions that may have unpleasant outcomes
______ responses are how phobias become even more entrenched through operant conditioning.
avoidance
what is positive punishment?
The classic kind of punishment means applying (adding) an aversive stimulus so your response brings a negative, hurtful outcome, making you less likely to repeat what you did wrong.
what is negative punishment?
you lose something valued, something is taken away, making you less likely to repeat what you did wrong
what is the goal of punishment, regardless if it’s negative or positive?
to reduce the frequency of the behaviour or response
what is shaping?
when you reward “baby-steps” to gradually teach a new behaviour
what is chaining?
a process of learning where a sequence of already established behaviours are reinforced step by step. used to teach more complex behaviours
what are the three distinct pathways, identified by Jeffrey Gray, that are linked to learning?
the behavioural approach system (BAS), the behaviour inhibition system (BIS), and the fight/flight system
what system gets triggered when there’s positive reinforcement?
BAS
What is BIS associated with in terms of punishment and responses?
the avoidance and esacpe responses fround in negative reinforcement and punishment
what do we focus on when the BIS system is tripped?
potential threats and how we can avoid them.
_____ plays a role in immediate alarm/escape panic responses to already occurring punishing stimuli
fight/flight
what do you believe if you have an external locus of control?
you believe that fate, luck, destiny, and powerful others control your life outcomes
who is more likely to give up, someone with and internal locus of control or external locus of control?
external
what do you believe if you have an internal locus of control?
you believe that your own actions control your life outcomes
what is learned hopelessness? when is it developed?
Learned helplessness is the belief that you cannot escape so why try?
Developed in situations in situations where you have no control over bad things or just expecting that you have no control over situations.
what type of people develop learned hopelessness normally?
child or spousal abuse, being a P.O.W., Sex slavery
what is social/observational learning?
Social/observational learning is when we learn, not just by modelling, but due to an action’s’ consequences to others (vicarious conditioning)
why is modelling and social/observational learning important to us as humans?
So we don’t have to go and make the same kinds of mistakes that others made and learn everything through direct trial and error.
what is the difference between direct modelling and vicarious conditioning?
direct modelling involves mimicking other’s actions/responses, whereas vicarious learning involves you to see the consequences of such actions and you do the actions depending on whether or not the consequences were good (more likely to do it too) or bad (less likely to do it)
what is continuous reinforcement?
Reinforce after every response
when does continuous reinforcement work best?
when you’re first teaching a behaviour
what is partial reinforcement?
when a payoff/reward/reinforcement is not given every time, but intermittently
when does partial reinforcement work best?
Works best for KEEPING a conditioned behaviour going
what is fixed ratio schedule? example?
Would mean that the pay off is “set” to be delivered after a certain NUMBER of responses.
ex: by 9 coffees get the 10th one free
what is variable ratio schedule? example?
Would mean that the payoff is set to be delivered after an unpredictable number of responses
ex: gambling
what is fixed interval schedule? example?
there are set rewards: pay off after a certain amount of TIME
ex: paychecks every 2 weeks
what is variable interval schedule? example?
Pay off comes after a unpredictable interval of time
ex: pop quiz
what is memory?
the ability to acquire, retain and retrieve information skills & knowledge
what does retrospective memory refer to?
Memories of things past
what does prospective memories refer to?
Our “memory” for what is to come
what are the 3 basic steps to memory processing?
- encoding
- storage
- retrieval
what does encoding refer to?
making the stimulus compatible with the circuitry of our brains; making mental representations of the stimulus
why is there more room for error in the human memory than with a computer?
unlike computers, which record information exactly as it is shown, the human brain is selective on what it stores
what are the 3 levels of memory that are always interacting simultaneously?
- sensory memory
- short term memory
- long term memory
In terms of memories, which is our brain more like; a computer or a parallel processor?
parallel processor
what does sensory memory serve to do and why?
Sensory memory serves to prolong a brief stimulus long enough to allow our brains to do some encoding and further processing, and to string our second by second experiences together giving us a sense of cohesion and continuity
what are the 2 types of sensory memory?
iconic memory, and echoic memory
what does iconic sensory memory do and why?
Preserves visual information for a few seconds after the stimulation has stopped so we can make sense of written text, tv, and movies
what does echoic memory do and why?
Preserves auditory information for a few seconds so we can understand spoken language and music
what is the other name for short term memory?
working memory
what is short term memory?
our second-by-second awareness and attention; what we have “in our mind” at any given moment
what is the purpose of short term memory?
temporary storage and processing of information
where does short term emory require information from?
sensory and long term memory
what portion of our brains is most involved in short term memory?
prefrontal and frontal lobes
what is the typical capacity of short term memory?
+/- 7 chunks
what is the typical duration of short term memory without rehearsal?
1-30 seconds
what is the typically duration of short term memory when distracted?
2 seconds
what is long term memory?
Long term memory is a vast portion of our memory that can hold the bits and pieces of all of the things we know, learned, saw, heard, touched, did, everything that was encoded & stored.
what comprises long term memory?
the material that we are not currently thinking about or conscious of
what are the 3 ways information can be encoded into long term memory? give examples.
- Effortful encoding
ex: like studying for a test - Automatic
Ex: The memory of a traumatic or emotional event. - Unconscious, or “implicit”, with no involvement of conscious working memory at all.
ex: Things we learned very young, before we had language or things we “learn” in “priming” experiments
what is the serial positioning effect?
where we remember thing that come at the beginning and end at a list better than in the middle
what is the primacy effect?
when we’re much better at recalling words early in a list because we tend to sub-vocally rehearse the words or names, so the ones at the beginning obviously get more rehearsal time
what is the recency effect?
when we remember stuff from the end of the list bette than the middle. This is because the stuff at the end of the list is still in our short term memory
what are the 2 types of rehearsal?
maintenance and elaborative rehearsal
what is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?
reinforcement make you repeat the behaviours/responses, punishment makes you avoid repeating the behaviour/punishment
what is maintenance rehearsal?
just repeating the things over and over
why isn’t maintenance rehearsal good for studying?
because it attached no meaning, and meaning is what is going to help you recall the information better
what is elaborative rehearsal?
where we make a deliberate effort to understand what we’re trying to remember
what kind of effortful encoding (rehearsal) activates left temporal lobes and creates much stronger memory traces?
elaborative rehearsal
what is dual coding theory?
Using more than one mode of encoding to have stronger memories
What leads to better recall? Verbal sounds, written words, or pictures? why?
Pictures because they utilize more than one mode of encoding the memory/mental representation.
They elicit both, visual modes of representation and verbal, words, “semantic” representations too (The “story of the picture”), which gives us more memory “hooks”/neural pathways/inroads/cues for later retrieval
deliberate memory tricks are called _____. what area of the brain do they activate?
“mnemonic devices” activate the prefrontal cortex
Related concepts are “linked up” in ________.
neural nodes (networks)
what is “spreading activation theory”?
the idea that activating one node may trigger activity in related neural nodes (ex: brainstorming)
What’s more important? Retrieval skills or encoding skills? Why?
Both are important, but most of it leads back to good encoding and strong initial memory traces.
This is because when we encode new information well, we’re creating a physical change in our brains
what neurotransmitters activate to enhance memory formation?
acetylcholine and glutamate
where are long term memories stored?
Bits & pieces are stored in the various association areas & emotion centres of the brain, which are all interconnected
cognitive _____ can help fill in the blanks of old memories.
schemas
Can cognitive schemas lead to false memories?
hells yeah
is photographic memory a real thing?
sort of. indeed there are people out there with remarkable memory recall such as autistic savants
what is the closest thing “normal people” have to photographic memory?
eidetic memory
what does it mean to have an eidetic memory?
This involves seeing a vivid afterimage of a scene/page that can be kept in the mind’s eye in detail for up to a few minutes (much longer than STD)
Eidetic memory is more prevalent in ______, and wears off when they _______.
children (2-15%), become adults
What may seem like photographic memory, may be a combo of good memory _____ and effortful/ ease of ______.
biology, encoding
what are the 2 types of long term memory?
declarative and procedural memory
what are the 2 types of declarative memories
episodic and semantic memory
what are episodic memories?
The memories for the autobiographical events we’ve experienced. These appear to be processed, & dated in the prefrontal lobes
what are semantic memories?
Verbal mental representations of generalized knowledge about the world (A.K.A. “Generic memory”)
This includes: facts, words, symbols, concepts including the various rules for how to use them, grammar, syntax etc
Includes general knowledge of how things look, sound, smell, behave, feel, work
These kinds of declarative memory usually involve what we call “explicit memory”.
what is explicit memory?
We’re consciously aware of this information, these memories and can, with effort, draw upon it if we have to
what type of memories do explicit memories tend to be?
verbal
what part of the brain is activated when you recall explicit memories?
Recalling these activates left frontal & deep temporal lobes.
The __________ plays a key role in laying down these new explicit long term memories & later retrieving them
hippocampus
what are procedural memories?
This is the type of memory that allows us to remember how to do things
Sometimes ________ are residue of things, skills, strategies we learned consciously & effortfully, but after a while they become automatized
procedural memories
what side of the brain do procedural memories involve.
Procedural memory involves the right hemisphere
what are implicit memories?
These are actions we perform unintentionally, without effort, without consciously putting it into words and “trying” to remember it.
what are the types of memory that “pop into your head”?
implicit memories
do implicit memories involve the hippocampus?
nawh guy
We come to “prefer” faces, odd geometric shapes or, Chinese letters, that were previously flashed to us subliminally (too fast to be consciously picked up), over other faces and shapes (mere exposure effect) so, clearly _____ memories can influence our overt behaviour.
implicit
what is infantile amnesia?
the absence of memory of the first 2-3 years of life
What might be the cause of infantile amnesia?
- increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus
- An inability to encode verbal information because haven’t mastered language yet
- no episodic memory because your sense of self isn’t developed yet
what is the reminiscence bump?
The sharp rise in recall of events from age 6 to early 20’s, then a tapering off, and another rise for the last few years noticed in older people
What might be some causes of the reminiscence bump?
We tend to remember best recent events and also novel, exciting events and this is the traditional period of growth, change, new loves, first jobs, leaving home
Smells, tastes, sounds can evoke instant memories & associated feelings. What type of memory is this?
implicit
what are “flash-bulb” memories?
slow motion, detailed, vivid recall of where we were, what we were doing when a traumatic event happened; Things that seem “burned” into our memory
what might be the reason we have flash-bulb memories?
survival values: Remembering the details of a dangerous event may help us to avoid such events in the future.
Stress hormones like adrenaline and cortisol can ______ memory formation.
enhance
What are the significance of beta blockers in terms of memory formation?
they can prevent us from forming enhanced memories, thus making them a good pill for PTSD sufferers
what is the idea behind state-dependant memory? example?
the idea that we tend to remember better things that match the mood or bodily state we’re presently in
ex: Depressed people typically remember sad childhood memories than happy ones, compared to non-depressed people
When you take a blow to the head, lose consciousness and then can’t recall anything after getting up that morning, you’re experiencing mild ________.
Organic retrograde amnesia
why does organic retrograde amnesia happen?
During this time the memory is fresh, it’s stimulating specific neural pathways, the neural path is just being forged, but it hasn’t solidified into a permanent memory trace, thus we forget
what is Organic Anterograde Amnesia?
Where people suffer brain damage that leaves them unable to form new explicit long-term memories.
They may be able to recall detailed events and information from before their accident, injury, infection, or surgery, but they can no longer retain new conscious information after it comes in
what part of the brain does anterograde amnesia effect?
the hippocampus
anterograde only effects _____ memories, not _______.
explicit, implicit
what does long term potentiation refer to?
the idea that firing neurons together while studying or teaching others the material, over and over makes them wire together, and thus more likely to fire together when you try to recall the information later on
what might be the cause of run of the mill forgetting?
Forgetting clears out redundant, unimportant items, unused neural pathways get taken over for other purposes, before these memories even have a chance to become consolidated
Or
Sometimes we “forget things” due to absent-mindedness, we just don’t pay attention, get distracted, and fail to encode the info in the first place
what is the ‘tip of the tongue’ phenomenon?
We haven’t truly forgotten, we know the answer, the memory trace is in there, but we just can’t access it at that moment
what should you do when you walk into a room and forget why you went there?
go back to where you were before –> retrieval cues
what is decay theory?
the idea that the physical memory traces in your brain simply weaken and fade away over time because it’s not strengthened by calling up the memory
What is interference theory?
the theory that memory interference can work in 2 ways: proactive interference, and retroactive interference
what is proactive interference? examples?
when previously learned information interferes with newer memories
ex: speaking a second language, remembering old passwords but not new ones, relearning how to play an instrument that you taught yourself to play
what is retroactive interference? examples?
the material we learned later (newer) muddles up our memory for what we learned earlier (older)
ex: only remembering unreal lyrics and not the actual lyrics
what is hyperthymestic syndrome? Names of people who have it?
you remember all of your personal memories from a certain age forward.
A.J. and Brad Williams
what is repression?
material that is very anxiety arousing, fearful, humiliating, shocking is pushed out of conscious awareness in order to protect the psyche and allow us to function
can false memories be implanted into people’s minds?
yep! so be wary, friends
are eye-witness testimonies reliable?
nope
didn’t think so
How ya doing young lady
The feeling that you gave me really drives me crazy
what is the availability heuristic?
When we rely on mental shortcuts to arrive at a fast answer, based on the “availability” of examples that come to mind
what is the representativeness statistic?
This one is sort of like stereotyping people; It’s a snap judgement on what “group” a person might belong to based on quick assessment of their appearance
what is analogical reasoning?
The kind of reasoning where we look at a new problem and figure out how to solve it by using something else we know that is similar to the problem at hand
what is deductive reasoning?
Starts with two GENERAL premises, which if true result in the correct SPECIFIC answer, but if even one premise is wrong the whole thing can become untrue.
deductive reasoning goes from the _______ to the _______.
general, specific
what is inductive reasoning?
This reasoning goes from SPECIFIC observations or events to a more GENERAL conclusion
what do we do more in everyday life; inductive or deductive reasoning?
inductive
what does the Ventromedial PFC help us do?
Helps us use our emotional reactions to guide decision making and behaviour
what does the The Dorsolateral PFC play a key role in?
plays a key role in working memory and explicit (conscious) thinking
what are the top 3 elements measured in an IQ test?
language, math, and visual spacial skills
what other things are measured in IQ tests?
Problem-solving
Quick vs slow speed of processing
Possessing a lot of knowledge
what do IQ tests not measure?
Practical smarts
Adaptability
Social or interpersonal competence
what is intelligence?
The use of cognitive skills and knowledge to learn, solve problems, and obtain things that are valued by the person or their culture
what does the psychometric approach look at in terms of IQ?
Looks at the items on the IQ tests and tries to figure out what the related components of intelligence are based on the products of these tests, the actual answers people give, and their “scores”; uses a sophisticated statistical tool called “factor analysis” to ferret out the different components of the IQ tasks and see how they correlate to one another to form “clusters”
what does the cognitive approach look at in terms of IQ and intelligence?
The cognitive approach is more interested in the processes (the mental operations) that generate the answers, and how we go about solving problems.
what things are tested on a cognitive IQ test?
- Your speed of processing
- Your knowledge base
Which refers to how well you’ve encoded and mentally organized & how easily you can retrieve it if need be. - How good you are at learning and applying cognitive strategies
Ex: mnemonic devices, formulas, making analogies,
what does Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory say?
that we have multiple different intelligences that are separate, independent, and “modular”, which have their own neural modules, with their own modes of representation (visual, kinaesthetic, auditory), own rules or procedures, and their own memory systems
what are Gardner’s multiple intelligences?
Math Language Spatial skills Musical intelligence Kinaesthetic intelligence Interpersonal intelligence Interpersonal intelligence
What is emotional intelligence? (EQ)
EQ is the ability to recognize and manage your own, and other’s emotional states
EQ is not an innate gift, but a skill we can nurture
Its better to have a better _Q than _Q.
E, I
what is creativity?
The ability to produce valued outcomes in novel ways
what is the correlation between creativity and intelligence?
Up to IQ of 120 there’s a moderate positive correlation in creativity and intelligence.
But for IQ’s 120 and higher, the correlation is zero
what does creativity involve?
Divergent thinking:
Ability to generate multiple uses for things, novel solutions to problems.
Thinking “outside the box”
creativity is linked with which of the following? a) a)curiosity
b) high energy
c) paint brushes
d) intuition
e) willingness to take risks
a,b,d,e
Environments can ____ or squelch creativity
foster
creativity is opposite to _____ thinking.
convergent
what is functional fixedness?
Functional fixedness is being fixated on usual functions, and fail to generate creative solutions
what is convergent thinking?
When we are mired in convention, stuck at the level of seeing things only from their usual point of view, their usual purpose
why isn’t measuring the density of neural connections and glial cells in the prefrontal cortex a good way to measure IQ?
cuz you gotta be dead to do that fam (preformed post mortem)
what was the basis for the 1st IQ tests ever made?
based on the notion that an “intelligent” child was one who could perform just like an older child would on the same tasks.
what is an issue for the 1st IQ tests ever made?
they don’t work on old people, only children
When did people start using group IQ tests? what are the pros and cons?
It started during WWI to see if someone was “officer material”
Pros?
Saves time and money.
Cons?
Quality of info gained suffers
We can’t assess their level of understanding, motivation and a lot of other “intangibles”.
what are IQ tests like today?
now use standardized “group norms” to compare your score to how most others your age, gender, race etc. preform
what are the weschler scales?
IQ tests for adults and children
What do the weschler scale measure?
a total IQ, and separate IQ scores for: Verbal abilities, Puzzle solving, Matching designs on blocks, Visual-spatial skills,
true or false, there is a standard IQ test that measures “practical intelligence”
false
IQ tests are ______ biased.
culturally
Name one culturally reduced IQ test
raven’s progressive matrices
why don’t culturally reduced IQ tests tend not to predict how well an individual will do in school?
because schools are culturally biased
are IQ scores stable?
in children no, but as one ages it begins to stabilize
when do IQ score peak?
age 18-25
After 25, IQ slowly ______, and then does so rapidly after age _____.
declines, 50
Why are IQ score climbing with each new generation?
more people going to school for longer, and the questions want more logical answers, and society today is all about logical so younger people will have the right answer
what IQ do you need to be considered mentally retarded?
70 or below
what is the minimum IQ you need to be considered mentally gifted?
130 or above
what are savants?
A special subgroup who display low skills, even mental retardation in most areas, and then astonishing skill in one or two
We rarely see all around giftedness in child prodegies, instead ________.
they’re extremely gifted in one or a few areas
what is the heritability quotient? (HQ)
It is a statistic, a coefficient similar to a correlation that tells us the proportion of the individual differences or variation in a given trait within any given group that can be explained by genetic factors
what is consciousness?
Awareness of ourselves and others, as distinct beings, and of the fact that we exist right now, existed in the past, will exist in the future, and will ultimately die.
It can also be seen as our subjective awareness of our internal world of feelings, thoughts, perception, planning, and memories, and of what is going on around us right now.
how is consciousness limited?
we can’t be aware of all things going on in our head and out in the world at all times
what is selective attention?
when we focus in and attend to only a few aspects at a time, holding them in our working memory, and screen out irrelevant stimuli that is competing for our attention
what is the “cocktail party” phenomenon?
Let’s say you’re at a gathering, there’s lots of noise, you’re focussing in on one conversation, but you hear someone in another group say your name (or mention a topic of interest to you), so you suddenly shift your attention over there
what does the cocktail party phenomenon show us in terms of consciousness?
It demonstrates to us that we are implicitly aware, at different levels of consciousness, of a lot more than we are presently focussing on, currently holding in our working memory.
what is divided attention?
When two or more stimuli compete for our focus
In many many experiments, it has been shown that multitasking _______ efficiency and performance.
reduces
who was the first person to propose the unconscious ming?
frued (ew)
what is the idea behind the unconscious mind?
That theres mental processes that take place outside of our conscious awareness, that affect our feelings and behaviours
what is the cognitive unconscious?
Information processing mechanisms that are outside of our conscious awareness, outside of our working memory.
what is a heuristic that relates to the cognitive unconscious?
the availability heuristic
what is deja vu?
Feeling that you’ve seen this all before, and it weirds you out.
what are the 2 theories proposed to explain deja vu?
the delayed perception theory, and the cognitive theories
what is delayed perception theory?
visual information comes in through 2 pathways; the conscious “what” pathway, and the unconscious “where” pathway. Any glitch can cause us to perceive the scene as already having happened
what part of the brain is key to the delayed perception theory? what is that part of the brain responsible for?
parahippocampal gyrus: which distinguishes between familiar & unfamiliar stimuli without having to access explicit LTM
what is the cognitive theories for deja vu?
Long-forgotten implicit memories trigger déjà vu, or perhaps even aspects of the old forgotten memory can trigger déjà vu
OR
2) Attention & working memory
Perhaps we have just taken in the scene via sensory memory but it has not become conscious, and then a second later we “notice” an element of it & déjà vu ensues
what is chronobiology?
The study of how time of day (month, year) impacts our physical functions and responses to treatments. We study this so we can find best ways to synchronize medications, and other treatments (including surgery) to work better with the body’s natural rhythms
what are 3 types of biological rhythms?
circadian, ultradian, and infradian rhythms
what is a circadian rhythm?
Bio-cycles that occur daily, on about a 24 hour clock
what is an ultradian rhythm?
These are biological cycles that occur more frequently than once a day. ex: 90 minute cycle
what is an infradian rhythm?
Biological cycles that occur less frequently than once a day.
when there are no external time cues, how long is our internal “day”
25 hours
What keeps these sleep/wake bio-rhythms synchronized?
An internal “super clock” called “the suprachiasmatic nucleus”, which responds to dark or light cues from our eyes
what does the suprachiasmatic nucleus” linked to, and what does it secrete?
It is linked to the hypothalamus & (eventually) the pineal gland where melatonin is secreted
Have the amount of hour we sleep a night gone up in the last century?
nawh dawg
what are some long term effects if you constantly have less sleep a night?
A decrease in immune function
Increases in adult onset diabetes,
10% increase in body mass index (BMI)
According to Alexandros N. Vgontzas of the Penn State University College of Medicine, what adverse side effects are there to having a few days of lost sleep?
Increased daytime sleepiness
Worsened daytime performance
Increase in molecules that are a sign of inflammation in the body
Impaired blood sugar regulation
The ability to pay attention deteriorates significantly after sleep restriction and does not improve after recovery. What does this suggests about recovery sleep over just a single weekend?
that it may not reverse all the effects of sleep lost during the work or school week.
rank thee lights from worst to best in terms of sleep.
blue/white, darkness, and red light.
blue/white
red light
complete darkness
what types of sleepers and are likely to be drowsy drivers?
short sleepers
what do we know sleep ISNT for?
Sleep isn’t needed to re energize the body because the body can get as much of a recharge from meditation or a quiet rest
Sleep isn’t for letting our bran rest because the brain can be just as active during sleep as when we’re awake
what do we THINK sleep is for?
Consolidation of memories, organization and processing of the day’s events,
Making new associations, new neural connections, new pathways between old info and new
what is synaptic homeostasis?
while awake, we reactivate neuronal circuits to reinforce memory links. But the same spontaneous firing during sleep may weaken the synapses, between neurons in many roused circuits, which returns the synapses to a baseline level of strength in order to conserve energy in, and reduce stress on nerve cells.
what are you EEG brain waves like while awake and alert, vs. awake and relaxed?
awake and alert: beta waves, erratic, spiky, predominate
awake and relaxed: more regular alpha waves
what are the stages of sleep?
stage 1, 2, 3, 4 and REM
what happens during stage 1 sleep?
we experience “drifting off”, and can be wakened easily
what are brain waves like during stage 1 sleep?
Brain waves become small and irregular, low voltage with mixed frequencies; theta waves predominant
during what stage of sleep do we have that totally hilarious experience of an arm or leg shooting out and waking yourself up?
stage 1
what are dreams like during nonREM stages of sleep?
very fleeting images, or sensations, disjointed
what happens during stage 2 sleep?
The formation of procedural memories, it’ll take more than light sounds to wake you
what are brain waves like in stage 2 sleep?
Sleep spindles emerge, occasional short bursts of rapid, high-peaking waves (k-complexes)
what happens during stage 3 and 4 sleep?
In stages 3 & 4 breathing and pulse slow down, body temperature drops, muscles become relaxed
what are brain waves like during stage 3 sleep?
sleep spindles and very slow delta waves, with very high peaks
what is stage 4 sleep often referred to as?
deep sleep
what are brain waves like during stage 4 sleep?
Slow, high peaking delta waves
Why do we often feel worse/ more groggy after our afternoon naps?
we woke up during stage 4 sleep
during what stage of sleep do we sleep walk?
stage 4
what is the official name for sleep walking?
somnambulism
during what stage of sleep do night terrors happen?
stage 4
what are night terrors?
a sudden quasi-waking from this deep stage of sleep, into a sympathetic nervous system, fight/flight panic-like state which is very disorienting and frightening
what can happen if night terrors and sleep walking combine?
you could literally kill a dude
during what stage of sleep do we sleep eat?
stage 3-4 (delta wave sleep)
what is sleep eating?
when we wake up during deep sleep and start to eat large quantities of food, even lard, cigarette butts, and raw hamburger meat
what 2 hormones do sleep eaters have low amounts of?
leptin and melatonin
does dieting help sleep eating?
no it makes it worse
what happens during REM sleep?
we have story-like dreams
what are brain waves like during REM sleep?
The brain waves are very rapid, long bursts, somewhat irregular; Similar to the profile of being awake and alert
what is atonia?
the paralysis of REM sleep
why do are muscles paralyze while in REM sleep?
so we don’t act out our dream
what is RSBD? who is more at risk?
when we fail to experience the typical muscle paralysis during REM sleep and so flail about, acting out their dreams.
men more at risk
What is sleep paralysis?
That scary feeling of waking, (sort of) and feeling frozen in place, like a presence is in the room or even something is holding you down, crushing your chest, but you can’t call out or move.
what areas of the brain are active during REM sleep?
Networks of neurons in the pons, thalamus, and amygdala are active as are association areas in the occipital, parietal and temporal lobes, too.
what parts of the brain shut down during REM sleep? what is the significance?
The main auditory, sensory, motor & visual cortex are shut down.
means we’re not having any real external stimuli
where in the brain is there less activity during REM sleep? why is this significant?
prefrontal cortex.
its why our brains defy logical and make no sense sometimes
what is sleep onset imagery?
when we do the same thing for a while and then sleep and have images of that activity flash through your mind
what might be the reason for sleep onset imagery?
Sleep onset imagery is thought to help integrate such repetitive experiences, cross-index the new with the old, or to help purge the image from mind
In an experiment, when awakened during REM sleep, subject’s brains made quicker word associations than during NREM or even when awake. why might this be?
This might be because the brain is primed to make all kinds of connections in REM sleep because it is a highly “associative” state,
whats freuds views on dreams?
Dreams are symbolic expressions of unconscious sexual and aggressive urges, conflicts and fears
what is freud’s latent content of dreams?
The hidden, unconscious meaning of the dream
In this view, dreams require an analyst to interpret them
what is the gesault school’s stance on the meaning of dreams?
all objects and people in the dream as representing aspects of ourselves
what is the cognitive view on dreams?
that dreams are for problem solving
what is lucid dreaming?
Becoming “aware” that you’re dreaming, while you are dreaming
what is freud’s manifest content of dreams?
the actual story of the dream
what is the state of hypnosis?
A state of heightened concentration & suggestibility
Highly hypnotizable people have larger _______ than regular people.
rostrum
what does is rostrum of the brain responsible for?
responsible for attention
what is Hildegard’s “hidden observer”?
Part of the mind “dissociates” and is aware of all that happens (including pain that has been “blocked” hypnotically)
is the meditating brain at rest?
nope its active
what are some changes to the brain that happen with meditation?
1) increased grey-matter density in the hippocampus (learning and memory), and in structures associated with self-awareness, compassion and introspection
2) decreased grey-matter density in the amygdala
what hormone is considered the “master molecule of addiction”?
dopamine
how do drugs and many other “addictive” substances and even behaviour make us feel “good”?
they raise dopamine levels in key brain circuits such as the mesolimbic pleasure pathway
Name some depressants.
barbiturates, sleeping pills, inhalants, “roofies” special k, GHB, alcohol.
what do all depressants do?
“depress/inhibit” CNS activity
is the risk of addiction and overdose with depressants high or low?
high
what is alcohol’s “biphasic” effect?
alcohol effects the brain in two phases, first targeting the anxiety centres in the brain, and then affect more and more areas
what happens during the first phase of alcohol’s biphasic effect?
mild stimulation –> Anxiety/inhibition centres are being depressed and we “come out” of our shells have a little buzz
what happens during the second phase of alcohol’s biphasic effect?
Depressive effects take over more brain areas, and motor and cognitive skills get messed up.
what is special K?
ketamine, its a veterinarian anesthetic, its a depressant.
what are special k’s effects?
Creates mind/body dissociation
Reduced input from somatic neurons
Inhibition of the thalamus
is special k physically addictive (withdrawal and tolerance)?
no, but it’s very psychologically addictive
what can regular use of special k do to your innards?
destroy tissues in the kidney and baddar system
why isn’t special k’s overdose risk as high as other depressants?
because you’ll go into a comma before you can take so much to OD
What is GHB?
Odourless, colourless liquid. One of many date rape drugs.
what are GHB’s effects?
It causes major disinhibition and severe dissociation
Greatly enhances sexual feelings and drive
One half teaspoon of ghb = 3 ½ drinks of alcohol
does GHB have a high overdose risk?
yes, you’ll die of respiratory arrest after only a little bit of the drug (1 tablespoon=death)
Name some stimulants
cocaine, amphetamines, speed, “uppers”, some diet pills (ephedra), caffeine, nicotine
what do all stimulants do?
“Speed us up”: heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels all go up
Stimulants increase alertness, reduce appetite
what follows a stimulant high?
an intense crash into a physiologically depressed state
how are withdrawal symptoms of stimulants different than those of depressants or opiates?
they have more psychological symptoms like boredom, depression, apathy, hypersomnia, intense cravings
what is cocaine? crack?
white powder derived from coca leaves
crack is a cheaper rock derivative of cocaine
how does cocaine get you high?
Cocaine molecules directly block the reuptake of dopamine in the pleasure pathway
how long does a cocaine high last?
a couple of minutes (short)
what causes the cocaine crash?
Crash is caused by inability to resynthesize used-up neurotransmitters fast enough
what are the effects of high doses of cocaine?
Panic, paranoia, delusions, hallucinations aka drug- induced “psychosis”
what is the idea behind the cocaine vaccine?
to create an immune response in which antibodies attach to cocaine molecules making them too big, thus preventing them from crossing the blood/brain barrier
ergo, you dont get high
how does meth make you high?
Creates much higher levels of dopamine by causing dopamine to surge from presynaptic neurons as well as preventing its reuptake
(double whammy)
what are some long term effects of meth use?
Repeated dopamine surges damage brain cells.
Down-regulation of natural dopamine levels in the brain causing depression & parkinson’s -like symptoms
Severe psychological and physical addiction
Acne
Weight loss & depression
psychosis
erectile dysfunction
long term cognitive impairment
Major tooth decay/loss “meth mouth”
Persistent anhedonia (can’t find pleasure in anything else)
Higher risk of infection/disease due to immune system suppression.
Major organ damage to heart, liver, lungs, kidneys, cardiac failure, stroke→ death
what are the “true narcotics”?
opiates and opioids
where are opiates and opioids derived from?
opium poppy
what are the effects of opiates and opioids?
pain relief and Intense pleasure and euphoria due to dopamine surge in the pleasure pathway
how do opiates and opioids provide pain relief?
Opiate molecules latch onto endorphin receptors in the brain
opiate and opioid withdrawal symptoms are similar to that of ________.
depressants
what are some treatment options for opiate and opioid addiction? which is better?
methadone and Buprenorphine
Buprenorphine better because its less addictive than methadone
what is rapid detoxification?
a 4-7 hour long process that uses I.V. Administration of drugs (eg: Naltrexone) to reverse the effects of any opiates & bring on immediate withdrawal while the patient is under general anaesthesia
why is rapid detoxification better than traditional detoxification?
it has a lower relapse rate
what are some hallucinogens?
LSD (acid), mescaline, magic mushrooms, PCP (angel dust)
what do all hallucinogens do?
Greatly alter sensation, perception, thinking, self-awareness, emotion
does taking hallucinogens like LSD, shrooms, or peyote increase a person’s risk of developing mental health problems?
no, in fact its the opposite; they have fewer mental health problems
do hallucinogens cause addiction or damage to the brain?
nope
what is ecstasy?
a combination of a stimulant and hallucinogen
what are the effects of ecstasy?
Mild-moderate stimulating effects, sensory illusions (touch, sound, smell, movement become more vivid, intense, pleasurable), euphoria, increased motor activity, Perception of “mind expansion”, more willing to have sex (but less able),
how long does an ecstasy high last?
5-7 hours
why is ecstasy considered addictive?
it can cause withdrawal and tolerance
what are the common side effects of ecstasy?
Constriction of blood vessels, tachycardia (high heart rate), increased blood pressure, pupil dilation
why is ecstasy called the “hug drug”?
it raises levels of oxytocin
X targets not only dopamine, but causes massive surges of _________ as well
serotonin
what is the chemical in weed that makes you high?
THC
marijuana also contains cannabidiol (CBD), what effects does this chemical have?
calming effects
THC is today’s weed are ___ times high than in the 1970s
7
what is the difference in CBD and THC in today’s marijuana and the 1970s
Today’s pot: 30% THC, 0% CBD
1970’s: 3-4% THC, 3-4% CBD
how does pot get you high?
THC molecules bind with receptors for “endocannabinoids”, our body’s own internal THC such as anandamide.
where are the receptors for “endocannabinoids”located?
areas of the brain key to pleasure, thinking, motivation, hunger memory, balance and motor skills, emotions, and brainstem areas that control pain, nausea, vomiting
does THC impair memory?
not long term, but yes to short term because it makes us easily distracted
chronic marijuana users have smaller brain volume in the __________, a part of the brain associated with addiction, but also ______ brain connectivity
orbitofrontal cortex, increased
chronic marijuana users typically have a lower ___, but this isn’t due to the brain abnormalities
IQ
early marijuana use (under 16) is linked to early onset of which two disorders (if they’re genetically predisposed to it)
schizophrenia and bipolar disoder
