Chapters 4- Flashcards
Consciousness
Awareness of internal and external stimuli such as feelings of
hunger and pain or detection of light.
Wakefulness
High levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior
Circadian rhythm
Biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours.
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
Influences Hypothalamus and petuitary system to control the biological clock. Light sensitive.
What part of the brain releases Melatonin
Melatonin is released by the pineal gland
Jet lag
Symptoms resulting from the mismatch
between our internal circadian cycles and our
environment.
Sleep Dept
Result of insufficiant sleep on a chronic basis
Sleep Rebound
A sleep-deprived individual will tend to take a shorter time to fall
asleep during subsequent opportunities for sleep.
Symptoms of Sleep Deprivation
Irritablility, cognitive impairment,
Sleep needs by age
Children need more sleep then adults
What is sleep?
Sleep is a state marked by relatively low physical activity and a reduced sense of awareness.
Why do we sleep - Adaptive Function (Evolutionary Hypotheses) Theory
Sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day.
- Sleep is an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness.
There is little evidence to support these explanations.
Why do we sleep - Cognitive Function theory
Focuses on sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation.
- Research shows that sleep deprivation results in disruptions in cognition and
memory deficits.
- These impairments become more severe as the amount of sleep deprivation
increases.
- Slow-wave sleep appears to be essential for effective memory formation.
Benifits of sleep
Maintaining a healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, increased
motor coordination as well as many benefits related to cognition and memory
formation.
What are Alpha waves?
relatively low
frequency, relatively high
amplitude, synchronized.
What are Theta waves?
low frequency,
low amplitude.
What are delta waves
low frequency,
high amplitude,
desynchronized.
What are beta waves
the waves when you are awake
Stage 1 of sleep
Transitional waves (alpha waves) about 5 minutes
Stage 2
10-15 minutes Theta waves
- Characterized by the appearance of
both sleep spindles and K-
complexes.
Sleep spindles – rapid burst of high
frequency brainwaves.
K-complexes – very high amplitude
pattern of brain activity.
STAGES 3 AND 4 of sleep
Known as slow-wave sleep.
- less then 50% Delta waves.
- Respiration and heart rate slow down further.
How long is a sleep cycle?
Roughly 90 minutes
RAPID EYE MOVEMENT (REM) Stage 5
Rapid eye movements.
- Paralysis of voluntary muscles.
- Dreams.
- Brain waves are similar to those seen during wakefulness.
What is a hypnogram?
A hypnogram is a diagram of the stages of sleep as they occur during a period of
sleep.
Sycodynamic theory
Saw dreams as a way to gain access to the unconscious.
• Manifest content – the actual content of the dream.
• Latent content – the hidden meaning of the dream
Carl Jung: (neofruidian)
Collective unconscious – theoretical repository of information shared by all
people across cultures.
Lucid dreams
Certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a
dreaming state. A person becomes aware that they are dreaming.
Basal forebrain
can induce sleep when stimulated
Insomnia
Defined by difficulty falling or staying asleep - for at least 3 nights a week for at least one month’s time.
The most common sleep disorder.
Man be associated with symptoms of depression.
Treatment for Insomnia
- Stress management techniques.
- Changes in problematic behaviors that could contribute to insomnia.
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy which focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors.
PARASOMNIA
involve unwanted motor behavior/experiences throughout the sleep cycle.
Sleep Walking
- Occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with REM sleep does not occur.
- Includes high levels of physical activity during REM sleep.
- Often treated with Clonazepam (an anti-anxiety medication).
Restless leg syndrome:
- Involves uncomfortable sensations in the legs when trying to fall asleep that are
relieved by moving the legs. - Can be treated with a variety of medications.
- Usually occurs during slow-wave sleep.
REM sleep behavior disorder:
- Sleeper experiences a sense of panic and may scream or attempt to escape.
- Occur during NREM sleep.
SLEEP APNEA
Occurs when individuals stop breathing during their sleep, usually for 10-20 seconds
or longer.
Repeated disruptions in sleep lead to increased levels of fatigue.
Common in people that are overweight.
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
airway becomes blocked and air is prevented from entering the lungs.
Centeral Sleep Apnea
CNS fails to initiate breaths.
NARCOLEPSY
Involves an irresistible urge to fall asleep during waking hours.
Often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress.
Shares many features of REM sleep including:
Cataplexy – loss of muscle tone while awake or in some cases complete paralysis
of the voluntary muscles.
Hypnagogic hallucinations - vivid, dream-like hallucinations.
Treatment – psychomotor stimulant drugs.
Physiological dependence
involves changes in normal bodily functions and
withdrawal upon cessation of use.
Psychological dependence
emotional need for the drug.
Tolerance
occurs when a person
requires more and more of a drug to
achieve effects previously experienced at
lower doses; linked to physiological
dependence.
Withdrawal
negative symptoms
experienced when drug use is
discontinued.
Depressants
drugs that suppress the central nervous system activity.
- Alcohol
- Barbiturates (anticonvulsant medication)
- Benzodiazepines (anti-anxiety medication)
Stimulants
Increase overall levels of neural activity. Increases dopamine
- Cocaine
- Amphetamine
- Cathinones (i.e., bath salts)
- MDMA
-Nicotine
Opioids
Derived from opium
- Heroine
- Morphine
- Methadone
- Codeine
Hallucinogens
Distorts reality
LSD, PCP
Sensory Receptors
Specialized neurons that respond to specific types of stimuli
Sensation
occurs when sensory receptors detect sensory stimuli.
Sensory Systems
Vision
- Hearing (audition)
- Smell (olfaction)
- Taste (gustation)
- Touch (somatosensation)
- Balance (vestibular sense)
- Body position (proprioception)
- Movement (kinesthesia)
- Pain (nociception)
- Temperature (thermoception)
Absolute threshold
minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time.
Subliminal messages.
messages presented below the threshold of conscious
awareness
Just noticeable difference
the minimum difference in stimuli required to
detect a change or a difference between stimuli.
Perception
way that sensory information is interpreted, organized, and consciously experienced.
Bottom-up processing
system in which perceptions are built from
sensory input.
Top-down processing
interpretation of sensations is influenced by
available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts.
Sensory adaption
not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over
prolonged periods of time.
- For example, when you first enter a quiet room you may hear the clock ticking.
Over time you become unaware of the ticking. The ticking is still affecting sensory
receptors but you are no longer perceiving the sound.
Inattentional blindness
Failure to notice something
that is completely visible
because of a lack of attention.
Factors affecting perception
Motivation
Signal detection theory – change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state.
Beliefs, values, prejudices and expectations
- People who hold positive attitudes towards low-fat foods are more likely to rate foods with low-fat labels as tasting better than people with less positive attitudes about low-fat products.
Life/Cultural experiences
- One study found that people from Western cultures (where there is a perceptual
context of buildings with straight lines) were more likely to experience certain types of visual illusions, like the Muller-Lyer illusion, than individuals from non-western
cultures (where they are more likely to live in round huts).
Amplitude and wave length
center to crest, crest to crest
Frequency
Number of waves
wavekength and amplitude
influences color and intensity
Pitch
Frequency
Loudness
Decibals
How do we see
Cornea bends light, pupil is opening, Aquesus humor, lense (lense hardens with age) avitruos humor, retina, fovia,
Optic nerve
Carries images from eye to brain
+ Cones
Phototopic (daytime) vision.
- Work best in bright light conditions.
High-acuity color information.
Located in the fovea.
+ Rods
Scotopic (nighttime) vision.
- Work best in low light conditions.
High-sensitivity.
Allows for low-acuity vision in dim light.
Involved in the perception of movement in our peripheral vision.
Located in the periphery of the retina.
The “WHAT” pathway:
Object recognition.
- Object identification.
The “WHERE/HOW” pathway:
Location in space.
- How one might interact with a
particular visual stimulus.
Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision
All colors can be produced by combining red, green, and blue. Applies to the retina where color vision is controlled by three types of cones.
Opponent-Process Theory vision
Color is coded in opponent pairs.
- Black – white
- Yellow – blue
- Green – Red
- Some cells are excited by one of the
opponent colors and are inhibited by the other.
- Applies to cells after the retina.
Where does the Opponent-Process Theory take place
Behind the Retina
+ What is after image?
continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus.
Depth Perception
our ability to perceive spatial relationships in 3-D.
Depth cues of a visual scene are used to establish our sense of depth .
Binocular cues
cue that relies on the use of both eyes.
Binocular disparity
slightly different view of the world that each
eye receives.
Monocular cues
cue that relies on only one eye.
Linear perspective
when two parallel lines seem to converge.
Interposition
the partial overlap of objects.
Temporal Theory of speech perception
Frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron.
- Problem – the frequency of action potentials cannot account for the entire range
that we are able to hear. There is a point at which a cell cannot fire any faster.
Place Theory
Different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies.
- The base responds to high frequencies and the tip responds to low frequencies.
Monaural
One ear
Each ear interacts with incoming sound
waves differently.
Interaural level difference
sound coming from one side of the body is more
intense at the closest ear because of the attenuation of the sound wave as it
passes through the head.
Interaural timing difference
small difference in the time at which a given
sound wave arrives at each ear.
How many groups of taste are there
6: Sweet,
Salty
3. Sour
4. Bitter
5. Umami – associated with a taste for monosodium glutamate.
6. Some research suggests we possess a taste for the fatty content of food.
Thermoception
temperature perception
Nociception
sensory signal indicating potential harm and maybe pain.
Inflammatory pain
signals some type of tissue damage.
Neuropathic pain
caused by damage to neurons of either the peripheral or central
nervous system.
Congenital insensitivity to pain
a rare genetic disorder
in which the individual is born without the ability to feel pain.
Vestibular sense
ability to maintain balance and
body posture.
The major sensory organs of the
vestibular system are located next to
the cochlea in the inner
Proprioception
perception of body position
Kinesthesia
perception of the body’s movement through space.
what is learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.
What is an unlearned behavior
reflexes: motor/neural reactions to a specific stimulus
Classical conditioning
involuntary response to an unnatural stimulus pair an unconditioned stimulus to a neutral stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned (unlearned) involuntary response to an unlearned stimulus.
before conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (food).
Unconditioned response –UCR) – a natural unlearned reaction to a stimulus (salivation in response to food).
Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
During Conditioning
Neutral stimulus (NS) – stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (ringing a bell – does not cause salivation by itself prior to conditioning).
- The NS and UCS are paired repeatedly.
Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
After Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS) – stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response (CR) – the behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus.
Bell (CS) → Salivation (CR)
what is classical conditioning
what is higher order conditioning?
Higher-order conditioning - an
established conditioned stimulus is paired
with a new neutral stimulus (the second-
order stimulus), so that eventually the new
stimulus also elicits the conditioned
response, without the initial conditioned
stimulus being presented.
Acquisition
The initial period of learning when an organism learns to connect a
neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
- Usually this requires there to be a very short time interval between the NS and
the UCS and for the pairing to repeated multiple times.
- Sometimes conditioning can occur when the interval is up to several hours and
the pairing occurs only once (e.g. taste aversion).
Extinction
decrease in the conditioned response when the UCS is no longer presented with the CS.
- If food stops being presented with the sound of the bell then eventually the dog
will stop responding to the bell.
Spontaneous recovery
the return of a previously extinguished conditioned
response following a rest period.
Stimulus discrimination
when an organism learns to respond differently to
various stimuli that are similar.
- The dog can discriminate between the specific bell sound that signals food and a similar bell sound that does not signal food.
Stimulus generalization
when an organism demonstrates the conditioned
response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
- If an individual learns to dislike a specific spider, they will usually then dislike all spiders.
Habituation
learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change.
- As a stimulus is repeated, we learn not to focus our attention on it.
conditioned emotion responses
Using emotion to invoke invountary responses. John Watson
little albert experiment
Little albert learns to be afraid of rats. generalized fear of all fuzzy things. conditioned emotional fears
Reinforcement
Is anything we do that could strenghtren the likelihood of a behavior happening again.
Positive reinforcement
Addition of something pleasurable Ex. money, food
Negative reinforcement
Removal or the escape of unpleasurable. Your car beeps at you to put your seat belt on.
*Neg reinforcement is not taking away something positive (ie. phone)
Primary reinforcers
Serve biological needs, ie food, drink, sex
Secondary reinforcers
Things that can help us acquire a primary reinforcer. Money, sticker chart
What does a punishment do
Decrease a behavior
Positive Punishment
Adding something unpleasant; Scolding a child, beating a child,
Negative Punishment
Subtracting something Pleasant: Ie. Taking away a phone, drivers license, car
Shaping
Rewarding an attempt at a behavior ex rewarding a dog for sitting part way down, and slowly increasing need)
Reinforcement schedules
5 types
giving reinforcement each time
Continuos reinfocement
giving reinforcement each time
Fastest to learn fastest to extinct
Fixed Interval reinfocement
reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals
(checking facebook).
Variable Reinfocement
the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements varies or changes. Ex. Social media
Fixed ratio
– reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses
(facotry workers being paid for every x number of items manufactured).
Variable ratio
reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of. Hardest to go extinct
responses (gambling).
Latent learning
learning that is not observable untill it has a reason to be demonstrated
Observational learning
Monkey see monkey do
4 processes needed:
1. Attention – focus on the behavior.
2. Retention – remember what you observed.
3. Reproduction – be able to perform the behavior.
4. Motivation – must want to copy the behavior.
Motivation depends on what happened to the model.
Vicarious reinforcement
process where the observer sees the model rewarded,
making the observer more likely to imitate the model’s behavior.
Vicarious punishment
process where the observer sees the model punished,
making the observer less likely to imitate the model’s behavior.
!Sleep sleep disorders
!Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when?
!marlo wakes up after a dream about his teeth falling out and looks in a sleep dictionary and finds out that means anxiety. what is he looking into
Fruid
!Drugs
How drugs may be classified dependance, tolorance, withdrawls
Tarique depends on ciggerets to sleep, he notices physical symptoms when he does not smoke. is this dependence or tolerance?
!Activities about sensation
What has research shown about subliminal messages?
Higher amplitudes lower amplitudes what sounds you may here
Top down v bottum up processing
Hetero walks into a bright psych lab involved in looking at colors of rainbow what photo receptors used
Cones?
Sensation and perception lab
proprioception
Proprioception, also referred to as kinaesthesia, is the sense of self-movement, force, and body position
What is main idea of operant conditioning
whats main idea of classical conditioning?
what is main idea of social learning theory
you begin to slavate when begin to smell your favorite meatloaf in the oven but not when you smell the green bean casserole in kitchen
classical condition?
ur big fan of gmas choco chip cookies one time she is making oatmeal cookies and when you smell it you still have same response
daves boss told him he doesnt have to attend company picnic if he meets sales quota this month. Daves boss is using what
reinforcement schedules
types of reinforcement
