Chapters 3 and 4 Flashcards
learning
the way in which we acquire new behaviors
stimuli + response
stimulus
anything to which an organism can respond , including sensory inputs
habituation
repeated exposure to the same stimuli can cause a decrease in response
dishabituation
recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred
associative learning
creation of a pairing between two stimuli between and a response
classical conditioning
type of associative learning that takes advantage of the biological instinctual responses to create associations between tow unrelated stimuli
unconditioned stimulus
any stimulus that brings about a reflexive response
unconditioned response
innate or reflexive response
neutral stimuli
do not elicit a response
conditioned stimulus
neutral stimulus, that with association, causes a reflexive response
extinction
organism becomes habituated to conditioned stimulus
spontaneous recovery
after some time, extinct conditioned stimulus is presented, week conditioned response may be exhibited
generalization
broadening effect by which aa stimulus appears similar enough to the conditioned stimulus that it can also elicit the conditioned response
discrimination
organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli
operant conditioning
links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of the behaviors
behaaviorism
Father is B F Skinner
theory that all behaviors are conditioned
reinforcement
process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior
positive reinforcers
increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence following a desired behavior
negative reinforcers
remove something unpleasant in order to increase the frequency of a behavior
escape learning
role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists
avoidance learning
prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
primary reinforcer
a treat that the animal responds to naturally
secondary reinforcer
a conditioned stimulus
discrimintive stimulus
indicated that the reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm
punishment
uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behvior
positive punishment
adds an unpleasant punishment iin order to reduce behavior
negative punsihment
reduction of a behavior due to stimulus being removed
fixed-ratio schedules
reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
continuous reinforcement
reward every time task is performed
variable-ratio schedules
reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances
fixed-interval schedule
reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed
variable-interval schedules
reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying amount of time
shaping
process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors
latent learning
learning that occurs without a reward, but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
problem solving
ability to analyze the situation and respond correctly the first time
instinctive drift
overcoming instinctual behaviors
observational learning
process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others
mirror neurons
located in frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex
fire when someone performs task as well as when you observe someone performing a task
modeling
people learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them
encoding
process of putting new information into memory
automatic processing
information that is gained without effort
controlled processing
effortful
active memorizing
visual encoding
visualization
acoustic encoding
storing sounds
semantic encoding
putting info into meaningful context
self-reference effect
putting info into the context of our own lives
maintenance rehearsal
repetition of aa piece of info to either keep in working memory or to store in short term for now, and eventually long term memory
mnemonics
common way to memorize information
method of loci
associating each item in the list with a location along the route through a building that has already been memorized
peg-word
associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers
chunking
grouping individual elements on a list based on meaning
sensory memory
consists of both iconic and echoic memory (vision and audition)
lasts only a short time, if unattended to
whole-report
when asked to recall whole list of letters, can only recall 3 or 4
partial-report
when asked to recall a row, can do so with 100% accuracy
short-term memory
7_+2 rule for number of items, lasts only for about 30 seconds
hippocampus
where short-term memory is housed until consolidated to long-term memory
working memory
enables us to keep aa few pieces of info in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information
elaborative rehearsal
way of keeping info at the forefront of consciousness
association of the info to knowledge already stored in long-term memory
implicit memory
procedural
consists of our skills and conditioned responses
explicit memory
declarative
consists of the memories that require conscious recall
semantic memory: facts we know
episodic: our experiences
rettrieval
process of demonstrating that something learning has been retained
recall
retrieval and statement of previously learning information
relearning
able to re-memorize much easier the second time through
semantic network
brain links concepts together based on similar meaning
spreading activation
when one node of our semantic network is activated, the other linked concepts are unconsciously activated
priming
recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to desired semantic memory
context effects
memory is aided by being in physical location where encoding took place
state-dependent memory
a person is more likely to recall memory in same mental state they created the memory
serial position effect
higher recall for both first few and last few items on a list
primacy effect
remember early items
recency effect
to remember later items
Alzheimer’s disease
degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of Ach in neurons linked to the hippocampus
neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques
sundowning
side effect of middle-to-late stage Alzheimer’s
increase in dysfunction in late afternoon and evening
Korsakoff’s syndrome
memory lost caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain
retrograde amnesia
loss of previously formed memories
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
confabulation
creating vivid but fabricated memories
agnosia
loss of ability to recognize objects
interference
retrieval error caused by existence of other, usually similar info
proactive interference
old info is interfering with new learning
retroactive interference
new information causes forgetting of old info
prospective memory
remembering to perform a task at some point in the future
misinformation effect
memories being affected by outside sources
source-monitoring error
confusion between semantic and episodic memory
confusing context of the memories
neuroplasticity
as brains develop, neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli
synaptic pruning
weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered
long-term potentiation
as stimulus is repeated, stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing neurotransmitters, receptor sites on other side of synapse increase, increasing receptor density
cognition
how our brains process and react to the info presented to us by the world
dual-coding theory
states that both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store info
information processing model
thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
stimuli must be analyzed by the brain in order to be useful in decision-making
decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems
problem solving is dependent not only on a person’s cognitive level, butt also on context and complexity of problem
cognitive development
development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across lifespan
Jean Piaget stages of development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
sensorimotor
0-2; manipulate environment, primary (sucking thumb) and secondary (throwing toys) reactions, object permanence
preoperational
2-7; symbolic thinking(pretend), egocentrism(imagine what other person may feel), and centrism(tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon)
lack concept of conservation: cannot focus on quantity of things
concrete operational
7-11; children can understand conservation, engage in logical thought when working with concrete objects
formal operational
11 and beyond; able to think logically about abstract ideas
Lev Vygotsky
proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of their culture
fluid intelligence
problem-solving skills
crystallized intelligence
use of learned skills and knowledge
dementia
begins with impaired memory but eventually leads to impaired judgment and confusion
delirium
rapid fluctuation in cognitive function
mental set
tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
functional fixedness
inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
deductive reasoning
top-down; starts with a general set of rules and draws conclusions from the info given
inductive reasoning
bottom . up; starts with specific instances, then draws conclusions from them
heuristics
simplified principles used to make decisions, rules of thumb
availability heuristic
used when we try to decide how likely something is
representativeness heuristic
involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit stereotypical image
base rate fallacy
using stereotypical factors, while ignoring actual numerical information
disconfirmattion principle
evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work
confirmation bias
tendency to focus on info that fits a person’s beliefs
overconfidence
tendency view one’s beliefs as undoubtedly correct
belief perserverance
refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite
clear evidence to the contrary
emotion
subjective experience of a person
multiple intelligences
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrspersonal
Stanford-Binet IQ test
mental age/chronological age * 100
reticular fromatioon
helps with awakeness and alertness
beta waves
alert, concentrating
alpha waves
awake, relaxing
stage 1 of sleep
as you doze off, theta waves
stage 2 of sleep
theta, sleep spindles, k complexes
stages 3 & 4 of sleep
slow-wave sleep; delta waves
hard to wake someone up
associated with cognitive development and growth hormone release
NREM
stages 1 through 4
REM
interspaced between cycles of the NREM sleep stages
sleep cycle
single complete progression through the sleep stages
circadian rhythms
24hour wake and sleep cycle
melatonin
serotonin-based, secreted from pineal gland, retina is connected to hypothalamus, which controls this gland
cortisol
a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex
CRF
due increased light, secreted from hypothalamus
leads to secretion of ACTH by the anterior pituitary, which leads to release of cortisol
activation-synthesis theory
idea that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circulatory
problem-solving dream theory
dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping
cognitive process dream theory
dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
neurocognitive models of dreaming
unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
dyssomnias
disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep
insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea
parasomnias
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep
night terrors, sleep walking
insomnia
difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
narcolepsy
lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep
cataplexy
loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep
sleep paralysis
sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
sleep apnea
inability to breathe while asleep
might terrors
periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep
sleepwalking
usually occurs during SWS
hypnosis
person seems in control, but actually is in a highly suggestible state
hypnotic induction
hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of concentration
meditation
produces a sense of relaxation and release from anxiety and worrying
depressants
reduce nervous system activity
alcohol
depressant, increases GABA receptor activity, increases dopamine levels=mild euphoria
effects logical reasoning
long term effects: cirrhosis, liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastric or duodenal ulcers, gastrointestinal cancer, brain disorders such as Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome due deficiency of thiamine (vitamin b)
barbituates
anxiety-reducing, sleep medication
benzodiazepines
increase GABA, cause relaxation
stimulants
cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system
amphetamines
increase arousal by releasing dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin and decreasing their reuptake
increased heart rate and blood pressure, euphoria, hyper-vigilance, grandeur, paranoia
long-term can lead to stroke
cocaine
decreases reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine
quick and potent effects
sometimes used in surgery of nose and throat, can lead to heart attack and strokes
ectasy
acts as an hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine
feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness
opium
opiates (morphine and codeine) and opioids (oxycodone, hydrocone, heroin)
bind to opioid receptors in the PNS
heroin
diacetylmorphine; body rapidly metabolizes heroin to morphine
treatment for opioid addiction may be methadone = lower risk for overdose
hallucinogens
lysergic acid diethyamide (LSD)
Interacts with serotonin
increased heart rate and blood pressure, dilation of pupils, sweating, increased body temperature
marijuana
cannabis sativa and cannabis indica; THC
eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short-term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite, and lowered BP
mesolimbic reward paathway
includes nucleus (Nac) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) connected by medial forebrain bundle (MFB)
gambling and falling in love
attention
concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment
selective attention
focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring all other stimuli
cocktail party phenomenon
hearing your name across the room while talking to someone
evidence of a different interpretation of selective attention
divided attention
ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
language
fundamental to the creation of communities
phonolgy
actual sound of language
morphology
structure of words
semantics
refers to the association of meaning with a word
syntax
refers to how words come together to form sentences
pragmatic
dependency of language on context
prosody
rhythm, cadence, inflection of our voices
errors of growth
child applies a grammatical rule
babbling
precursor to language
nativist (biological) theory
innate capacity for language
language acquisition device (LAD)
theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb languages
critical period
language acquisition between two years and puberty
sensitive period
time where environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
learning (behaviorist) theory
BF Skinner, acquisition by operant conditioning
social interactionist theory
interplay between biological and social processes
Whorfian hypothesis
the way we think about the world, determined by the content language
Broca’s area
controls motor function of speech
Wernicke’s area
for language comprehension
arcuate fasciculus
connects Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area
aphasia
deficit of language production or comprehension
broca’s aphasia
sensation of word on the tip of your tongue
Wernicke’s aphasia
comprehension of speech is lost
conduction aphasia
patient is unable to repeat something that is said
