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MCAT Behavioral Sciences > Chapters 3 and 4 > Flashcards

Chapters 3 and 4 Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

learning

A

the way in which we acquire new behaviors

stimuli + response

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2
Q

stimulus

A

anything to which an organism can respond , including sensory inputs

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3
Q

habituation

A

repeated exposure to the same stimuli can cause a decrease in response

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4
Q

dishabituation

A

recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred

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5
Q

associative learning

A

creation of a pairing between two stimuli between and a response

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6
Q

classical conditioning

A

type of associative learning that takes advantage of the biological instinctual responses to create associations between tow unrelated stimuli

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7
Q

unconditioned stimulus

A

any stimulus that brings about a reflexive response

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8
Q

unconditioned response

A

innate or reflexive response

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9
Q

neutral stimuli

A

do not elicit a response

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10
Q

conditioned stimulus

A

neutral stimulus, that with association, causes a reflexive response

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11
Q

extinction

A

organism becomes habituated to conditioned stimulus

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12
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

after some time, extinct conditioned stimulus is presented, week conditioned response may be exhibited

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13
Q

generalization

A

broadening effect by which aa stimulus appears similar enough to the conditioned stimulus that it can also elicit the conditioned response

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14
Q

discrimination

A

organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli

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15
Q

operant conditioning

A

links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of the behaviors

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16
Q

behaaviorism

A

Father is B F Skinner

theory that all behaviors are conditioned

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17
Q

reinforcement

A

process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior

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18
Q

positive reinforcers

A

increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence following a desired behavior

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19
Q

negative reinforcers

A

remove something unpleasant in order to increase the frequency of a behavior

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20
Q

escape learning

A

role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists

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21
Q

avoidance learning

A

prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen

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22
Q

primary reinforcer

A

a treat that the animal responds to naturally

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23
Q

secondary reinforcer

A

a conditioned stimulus

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24
Q

discrimintive stimulus

A

indicated that the reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm

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25
Q

punishment

A

uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behvior

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26
Q

positive punishment

A

adds an unpleasant punishment iin order to reduce behavior

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27
Q

negative punsihment

A

reduction of a behavior due to stimulus being removed

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28
Q

fixed-ratio schedules

A

reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior

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29
Q

continuous reinforcement

A

reward every time task is performed

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30
Q

variable-ratio schedules

A

reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances

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31
Q

fixed-interval schedule

A

reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed

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32
Q

variable-interval schedules

A

reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying amount of time

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33
Q

shaping

A

process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors

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34
Q

latent learning

A

learning that occurs without a reward, but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

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35
Q

problem solving

A

ability to analyze the situation and respond correctly the first time

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36
Q

instinctive drift

A

overcoming instinctual behaviors

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37
Q

observational learning

A

process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others

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38
Q

mirror neurons

A

located in frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex

fire when someone performs task as well as when you observe someone performing a task

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39
Q

modeling

A

people learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them

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40
Q

encoding

A

process of putting new information into memory

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41
Q

automatic processing

A

information that is gained without effort

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42
Q

controlled processing

A

effortful

active memorizing

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43
Q

visual encoding

A

visualization

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44
Q

acoustic encoding

A

storing sounds

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45
Q

semantic encoding

A

putting info into meaningful context

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46
Q

self-reference effect

A

putting info into the context of our own lives

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47
Q

maintenance rehearsal

A

repetition of aa piece of info to either keep in working memory or to store in short term for now, and eventually long term memory

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48
Q

mnemonics

A

common way to memorize information

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49
Q

method of loci

A

associating each item in the list with a location along the route through a building that has already been memorized

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50
Q

peg-word

A

associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers

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51
Q

chunking

A

grouping individual elements on a list based on meaning

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52
Q

sensory memory

A

consists of both iconic and echoic memory (vision and audition)
lasts only a short time, if unattended to

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53
Q

whole-report

A

when asked to recall whole list of letters, can only recall 3 or 4

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54
Q

partial-report

A

when asked to recall a row, can do so with 100% accuracy

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55
Q

short-term memory

A

7_+2 rule for number of items, lasts only for about 30 seconds

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56
Q

hippocampus

A

where short-term memory is housed until consolidated to long-term memory

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57
Q

working memory

A

enables us to keep aa few pieces of info in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information

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58
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A

way of keeping info at the forefront of consciousness

association of the info to knowledge already stored in long-term memory

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59
Q

implicit memory

A

procedural

consists of our skills and conditioned responses

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60
Q

explicit memory

A

declarative
consists of the memories that require conscious recall

semantic memory: facts we know
episodic: our experiences

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61
Q

rettrieval

A

process of demonstrating that something learning has been retained

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62
Q

recall

A

retrieval and statement of previously learning information

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63
Q

relearning

A

able to re-memorize much easier the second time through

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64
Q

semantic network

A

brain links concepts together based on similar meaning

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65
Q

spreading activation

A

when one node of our semantic network is activated, the other linked concepts are unconsciously activated

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66
Q

priming

A

recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to desired semantic memory

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67
Q

context effects

A

memory is aided by being in physical location where encoding took place

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68
Q

state-dependent memory

A

a person is more likely to recall memory in same mental state they created the memory

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69
Q

serial position effect

A

higher recall for both first few and last few items on a list

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70
Q

primacy effect

A

remember early items

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71
Q

recency effect

A

to remember later items

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72
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of Ach in neurons linked to the hippocampus
neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques

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73
Q

sundowning

A

side effect of middle-to-late stage Alzheimer’s

increase in dysfunction in late afternoon and evening

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74
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome

A

memory lost caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain

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75
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

loss of previously formed memories

76
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

inability to form new memories

77
Q

confabulation

A

creating vivid but fabricated memories

78
Q

agnosia

A

loss of ability to recognize objects

79
Q

interference

A

retrieval error caused by existence of other, usually similar info

80
Q

proactive interference

A

old info is interfering with new learning

81
Q

retroactive interference

A

new information causes forgetting of old info

82
Q

prospective memory

A

remembering to perform a task at some point in the future

83
Q

misinformation effect

A

memories being affected by outside sources

84
Q

source-monitoring error

A

confusion between semantic and episodic memory

confusing context of the memories

85
Q

neuroplasticity

A

as brains develop, neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli

86
Q

synaptic pruning

A

weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered

87
Q

long-term potentiation

A

as stimulus is repeated, stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing neurotransmitters, receptor sites on other side of synapse increase, increasing receptor density

88
Q

cognition

A

how our brains process and react to the info presented to us by the world

89
Q

dual-coding theory

A

states that both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store info

90
Q

information processing model

A

thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli

stimuli must be analyzed by the brain in order to be useful in decision-making

decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems

problem solving is dependent not only on a person’s cognitive level, butt also on context and complexity of problem

91
Q

cognitive development

A

development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across lifespan

92
Q

Jean Piaget stages of development

A

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

93
Q

sensorimotor

A

0-2; manipulate environment, primary (sucking thumb) and secondary (throwing toys) reactions, object permanence

94
Q

preoperational

A

2-7; symbolic thinking(pretend), egocentrism(imagine what other person may feel), and centrism(tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon)
lack concept of conservation: cannot focus on quantity of things

95
Q

concrete operational

A

7-11; children can understand conservation, engage in logical thought when working with concrete objects

96
Q

formal operational

A

11 and beyond; able to think logically about abstract ideas

97
Q

Lev Vygotsky

A

proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of their culture

98
Q

fluid intelligence

A

problem-solving skills

99
Q

crystallized intelligence

A

use of learned skills and knowledge

100
Q

dementia

A

begins with impaired memory but eventually leads to impaired judgment and confusion

101
Q

delirium

A

rapid fluctuation in cognitive function

102
Q

mental set

A

tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

103
Q

functional fixedness

A

inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

104
Q

deductive reasoning

A

top-down; starts with a general set of rules and draws conclusions from the info given

105
Q

inductive reasoning

A

bottom . up; starts with specific instances, then draws conclusions from them

106
Q

heuristics

A

simplified principles used to make decisions, rules of thumb

107
Q

availability heuristic

A

used when we try to decide how likely something is

108
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit stereotypical image

109
Q

base rate fallacy

A

using stereotypical factors, while ignoring actual numerical information

110
Q

disconfirmattion principle

A

evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work

111
Q

confirmation bias

A

tendency to focus on info that fits a person’s beliefs

112
Q

overconfidence

A

tendency view one’s beliefs as undoubtedly correct

113
Q

belief perserverance

A

refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite
clear evidence to the contrary

114
Q

emotion

A

subjective experience of a person

115
Q

multiple intelligences

A

linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrspersonal

116
Q

Stanford-Binet IQ test

A

mental age/chronological age * 100

117
Q

reticular fromatioon

A

helps with awakeness and alertness

118
Q

beta waves

A

alert, concentrating

119
Q

alpha waves

A

awake, relaxing

120
Q

stage 1 of sleep

A

as you doze off, theta waves

121
Q

stage 2 of sleep

A

theta, sleep spindles, k complexes

122
Q

stages 3 & 4 of sleep

A

slow-wave sleep; delta waves
hard to wake someone up
associated with cognitive development and growth hormone release

123
Q

NREM

A

stages 1 through 4

124
Q

REM

A

interspaced between cycles of the NREM sleep stages

125
Q

sleep cycle

A

single complete progression through the sleep stages

126
Q

circadian rhythms

A

24hour wake and sleep cycle

127
Q

melatonin

A

serotonin-based, secreted from pineal gland, retina is connected to hypothalamus, which controls this gland

128
Q

cortisol

A

a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex

129
Q

CRF

A

due increased light, secreted from hypothalamus

leads to secretion of ACTH by the anterior pituitary, which leads to release of cortisol

130
Q

activation-synthesis theory

A

idea that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circulatory

131
Q

problem-solving dream theory

A

dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping

132
Q

cognitive process dream theory

A

dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness

133
Q

neurocognitive models of dreaming

A

unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

134
Q

dyssomnias

A

disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep

insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea

135
Q

parasomnias

A

abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep

night terrors, sleep walking

136
Q

insomnia

A

difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep

137
Q

narcolepsy

A

lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep

138
Q

cataplexy

A

loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep

139
Q

sleep paralysis

A

sensation of being unable to move despite being awake

140
Q

hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations

A

hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening

141
Q

sleep apnea

A

inability to breathe while asleep

142
Q

might terrors

A

periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep

143
Q

sleepwalking

A

usually occurs during SWS

144
Q

hypnosis

A

person seems in control, but actually is in a highly suggestible state

145
Q

hypnotic induction

A

hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of concentration

146
Q

meditation

A

produces a sense of relaxation and release from anxiety and worrying

147
Q

depressants

A

reduce nervous system activity

148
Q

alcohol

A

depressant, increases GABA receptor activity, increases dopamine levels=mild euphoria
effects logical reasoning
long term effects: cirrhosis, liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastric or duodenal ulcers, gastrointestinal cancer, brain disorders such as Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome due deficiency of thiamine (vitamin b)

149
Q

barbituates

A

anxiety-reducing, sleep medication

150
Q

benzodiazepines

A

increase GABA, cause relaxation

151
Q

stimulants

A

cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system

152
Q

amphetamines

A

increase arousal by releasing dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin and decreasing their reuptake

increased heart rate and blood pressure, euphoria, hyper-vigilance, grandeur, paranoia
long-term can lead to stroke

153
Q

cocaine

A

decreases reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine
quick and potent effects
sometimes used in surgery of nose and throat, can lead to heart attack and strokes

154
Q

ectasy

A

acts as an hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine

feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness

155
Q

opium

A

opiates (morphine and codeine) and opioids (oxycodone, hydrocone, heroin)

bind to opioid receptors in the PNS

156
Q

heroin

A

diacetylmorphine; body rapidly metabolizes heroin to morphine

treatment for opioid addiction may be methadone = lower risk for overdose

157
Q

hallucinogens

A

lysergic acid diethyamide (LSD)
Interacts with serotonin
increased heart rate and blood pressure, dilation of pupils, sweating, increased body temperature

158
Q

marijuana

A

cannabis sativa and cannabis indica; THC
eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short-term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite, and lowered BP

159
Q

mesolimbic reward paathway

A

includes nucleus (Nac) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) connected by medial forebrain bundle (MFB)

gambling and falling in love

160
Q

attention

A

concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment

161
Q

selective attention

A

focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring all other stimuli

162
Q

cocktail party phenomenon

A

hearing your name across the room while talking to someone

evidence of a different interpretation of selective attention

163
Q

divided attention

A

ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time

164
Q

language

A

fundamental to the creation of communities

165
Q

phonolgy

A

actual sound of language

166
Q

morphology

A

structure of words

167
Q

semantics

A

refers to the association of meaning with a word

168
Q

syntax

A

refers to how words come together to form sentences

169
Q

pragmatic

A

dependency of language on context

170
Q

prosody

A

rhythm, cadence, inflection of our voices

171
Q

errors of growth

A

child applies a grammatical rule

172
Q

babbling

A

precursor to language

173
Q

nativist (biological) theory

A

innate capacity for language

174
Q

language acquisition device (LAD)

A

theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb languages

175
Q

critical period

A

language acquisition between two years and puberty

176
Q

sensitive period

A

time where environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability

177
Q

learning (behaviorist) theory

A

BF Skinner, acquisition by operant conditioning

178
Q

social interactionist theory

A

interplay between biological and social processes

179
Q

Whorfian hypothesis

A

the way we think about the world, determined by the content language

180
Q

Broca’s area

A

controls motor function of speech

181
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

for language comprehension

182
Q

arcuate fasciculus

A

connects Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area

183
Q

aphasia

A

deficit of language production or comprehension

184
Q

broca’s aphasia

A

sensation of word on the tip of your tongue

185
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

comprehension of speech is lost

186
Q

conduction aphasia

A

patient is unable to repeat something that is said

MCAT Behavioral Sciences (2 decks)

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