Chapters 1-7 Flashcards
1
Q
Biology
A
the scientific study of life
2
Q
What are the properties of life?
A
Order, evolutionary adaption, regulation, energy processing, growth and development, response to the environment, reproduction
3
Q
What are the levels of biological organization from smallest to largest?
A
Molecules, Organelles, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, Organisms, Populations, Communities, Ecosystems, Biosphere
4
Q
Reductionism
A
Zooming in through the levels of the biological hierarchy at ever-finer resolution
5
Q
Molecule
A
a chemical structure consisting of two or more units called atoms
6
Q
Organelles
A
the various functional components present in cells
7
Q
Cells
A
life’s fundamental unit of structure and function
8
Q
Tissues
A
group of cells that work together, performing a specialized function
9
Q
Organs
A
a body part that is made up of multiple tissues and has specific functions in the body
10
Q
Organisms
A
individual living things
11
Q
Populations
A
consists of all the individuals of species living within the bounds of a specified area
12
Q
Communities
A
the array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem
13
Q
Ecosystem
A
consists of all living things in a particular area, along with all the nonliving components of the environment with which life interacts, such as soil, water, atmospheric gases, and light
14
Q
Biosphere
A
consists of all life on earth and all the places where life exists; most regions of land, most bodies of water, the atmosphere to an altitude of several kilometers, and even sediments far below the ocean floor
15
Q
Emergent Properties
A
properties that emerge at each level that are absent from the preceding ones
16
Q
Systems Biology
A
the exploration of a biological system by analyzing the. interactions among its part
17
Q
Eukaryotic Cells
A
contain membrane-enclosed organelles; some organelles, such as the DNA-containing nucleus, are found in the cells of all eukaryotes; other organelles are specific to particular cell types
18
Q
Prokaryotic Cells
A
lacks a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles; generally smaller than eukaryotic cells
19
Q
DNA
A
(deoxyribonucleic acid) genetic material found in structures called chromosomes; it is replicated before the cells divides
made up of two long chains, called strands arranged in a double helix
each chain is made up of four kinds of chemical building blocks called nucleotides, abbreviated A,T,C,G
20
Q
Genes
A
a section of the DNA of the chromosome
21
Q
Nucleotides in DNA
A
A T C G
22
Q
Gene expression
A
the entire process by which the information in a gene directs the manufacture of a cellular product
23
Q
Why are there differences in organisms (relate to genetics)
A
there are differences between the nucleotide sequences rather than between their genetic codes
24
Q
Genome
A
the entire “library” of genetic information
25
Genomics
when researchers study a whole set of genes in one or more species
26
Proteomics
the study of sets of proteins and their properties
27
Proteome
the entire set of proteins expressed by a given cell, tissue, or organism
28
Bioinformatics
the use of computational tools to store, organize, and analyze the huge volume of data that results from high throughput methods
it is a research development that has made the genomic and proteomic approaches possible
29
Three research developments that have made genomic and proteomic approaches possible
the high throughput technology=tools that analyze many biological samples very rapidly
bioinformatics
formation of interdisciplinary research teams=groups of diverse specialists
30
Producers
those living things that pass chemical energy in from them (plants) to consumers
31
Consumers
organisms, such as animals, that feed on other organisms or their remains
32
Feedback regulation
the output or product of a process that regulates that very process
For example: negative feedback is a response that reduces the initial stimulus
33
Climate change
a directional change to the global climate that lasts for three decades or more
34
Evolution
the scientific explanation for the unity and diversity of organisms, as well as for the adaption of organisms to their particular environments
35
Three domains of life
Bacteria, Archea and Eukarya
36
What are the prokaryotic domains of life
Bacteria and archea
37
What is/are the eukaryotic domains of life
Eukarya: includes=the kingdom plantae, the kingdom fungi, kingdom Animalia, and the protists
38
Natural Selection
Darwin's theory of adaption; the natural environment selects for the propagation of certain traits among naturally occurring variant traits in the population
39
Science
A way of knowing, an approach to understanding the natural world
40
Inquiry
A search for information and explanations of natural phenomena
Process: making observations, forming logical, testable explanations (hypotheses), and testing them
41
Data
Recorded observations
Qualitative: often in the form of recorded descriptions rather than numerical measurements
Quantitative: generally expressed as numerical measurements and often organized into tables and graphs--scientists use statisitics
42
Inductive reasoning
deriving generalizations from a large number of specific observations from collecting and analyzing important conclusions
43
Hypothesis
an explanation, based on observations and assumptions, that leads to a testable prediction
an explanation on trial
rational accounting for a set of observations, based on the available data and guided by inductive reasoning
44
Experiment
a scientific test, carried out under controlled conditions
45
Deductive reasoning
logic that flows from the general to the specific
predictions of results that will be found if a particular hypothesis is correct
"if...,then...."
46
Controlled experiment
one that is designed to compare an experimental group with a control group
47
Variables
the factor that is manipulated and the factor that is subsequently measured--the factor or quantity that varies in the experiment
48
Independent variable
the factor being manipulated
49
Dependent variable
the factor being measured that is predicted to be affected by the independent variable
50
Theory
much broader than a hypothesis; generates new hypothesis, supported by a large body of evidence
51
Matter
anything that takes up space or has mass
52
Element
a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions
53
Compound
a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio
54
Essential elements
elements that an organism needs to live a healthy ;life a reproduce
55
Trace elements
are required by an organism in only minute quantities
56
Atomic number
number of protons
57
Mass number
the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
58
Isotopes
atoms that have more neutrons than other atoms of the same element and therefore have greater mass
59
Radioactive isotope
one in which the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy
when the radioactive decay leads to a change in the number of protons, it transforms the atom to an atom of a different element
60
Half-life
time it takes for 50% to decay
61
Radiometric dating
scientists measure the ratio of different isotopes and calculate how many half-lives have passed since an organism or a rock was formed
62
Covalent bonds
the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms
63
Valence
the bonding capacity of the atom...usually equals the number of unpaired electrons required to complete the atom's outermost shell
64
Nonpolar covalent bond
electrons are shared equally because the two atoms have the same electronegativity
65
Polar covalent bond
when an atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom, the electrons are not shared equally
66
Most electronegative elements (1)
Oxygen
67
Ionic bonds
the attraction of cations and anions--when two atoms are so unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that the more electronegative atom strips an electron from the other=anion and cation
68
What are compounds formed by ionic bonds called?
Salts
69
Hydrogen bonds
the attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom
70
Van der Waals Interactions
weak bonds; ever-changing regions of positive and negative charge that enable all atoms and molecules to stick to one another (gecko)
71
Products
the resulting materials
72
Reactants
the starting materials
73
Chemical equilibrium
the point at which reactions offset one another
the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate
relative concentrations of products and reactants stops changing
74
Which of the following statements correctly describes any chemical reaction that has reached equilibrium?
A. the reaction is irreversible
B. the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal
C. both toward and reverse reactions have halted
D. the concentrations of products and reactants are equal
B. the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal
75
Four emergent properties of water
cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing, and versatility as a solvent
76
Cohesion
hydrogen bonds hold a substance together
hydrogen bonding=contribues to the transport of water and dissolved nutrients against gravity in plants
mutual attraction between two of the same molecules
77
Adhesion
the clinging of one substance together
| two different substances
78
Surface tension
a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid
related to cohesion
79
How does water moderate air temperature
absorbs heat from the air that is warmed and releasing stored heat to air that is cooler
80
How is water effective as a heat bank
it can absorb or release relatively large amounts of heat with only a slight canoe in its own temperature
81
Thermal energy
the kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules
82
Temperature
the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a body of matter, regardless of volume
83
Thermal energy v. temperature
Temperature is the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a body of matter, regardless of volume, whereas thermal energy of a body of matter reflects the total kinetic energy, depending on the volume
84
Heat
the thermal energy in transfer from one body of matter to another
85
Energy units
Calories/Joules
86
Specific heat
the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of that substance to change its temperature b 1 degree Celsius
87
Describe water's specific heat
water has a high specific heat relative to other materials and will therefore change its temperature less than other liquids when it absorbs or loses a given amount of heat
88
Heat of vaporization
the quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state
89
Evaporative cooling
the "hottest" molecules, those with the greatest kinetic energy, are the most likely to leave as gas
90
Why does solid water float?
Hydrogen bonding=the hydrogen bonds keep the molecules at arms length, far enough apart to make ice about 10% less dense than liquid water
Lower density
91
Why is it important that ice floats
life would be impossible everything froze solid...it also provides a solid habitat for animals like polar bears and protects animals below
92
Solution
a liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
93
Solvent
the dissolving agent of a solution (water)
94
Solute
the substance that is dissolved (sugar)
95
Aqueous solution
one in which the solute is dissolved in water
96
Hydrogen Ion
results from when an occasional hydrogen atom participating in a hydrogen bond between two water molecules shifts from one molecule to another...this is the single proton with a charge of 1+
97
Hydroxide ion (OH-)
the water molecule that lost a proton
98
Hydronium ion (H30+)
the water molecule that gained a proton
99
Molecular mass
the sum of all the masses of all atoms in a molecule
100
Molarity
the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
101
Acid
a substance that increases the proton concentration (H+) of a solution
102
Base
a substance that reduces the H+ concentration of a solution
103
pH
the negative logarithm of the h+ concentration written as
| ph=-log [H+]
104
Buffers
substances that minimize changes in the concentrations of protons and hydroxide ions in a solution
contain a weak acid and its corresponding base
105
Ocean Acidification
when CO2 dissolves in seawater, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which lowers ocean pH
106
Two ways a base can make a solution basic
1. reduce the H+ concentration by accepting hydrogen ions
NH3 + H+ = NH4+
2. reduce the h+ concentration by forming hydroxide bonds which bond to hydrogen ions and form water
107
Organic Chemistry
the study of compounds contain carbon which are said to be organic because they were thought to arise only in living organism and contain a life force beyond the jurisdiction of physical and chemical laws. however, this was wrong and it could be produced in a lab
108
Stanley Miller's Research
found that complex organic molecules could have arose spontaneously under conditions thought at the time to have existed on the early earth.
109
Structure of carbon molecule when two are connected by a single bond
Tetrahedral
110
Structure of a carbon molecule when two are connected by a double bond
Flat
111
Ways that carbon skeletons can vary
length (amount of carbon atoms), branching, double bond position, presence of rings
112
Hydrocarbon
organic molecules only consisting of carbon and hydrogen
113
Isomers and types
compounds that have the same number of atoms of the same elements (same molecular formulas!!) but different structures and hence different properties
structural, cis-trans, enantiomers
114
Structural isomers
differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms, or their branching
115
Cis-trans isomers
have covalent bonds to the same atoms, but these atoms differ in their spatial arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds...differ in arrangement about a double bond
116
Enantiomers
are isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon, one that is attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms
117
What are the functional groups?
hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl
118
Hydroxyl Group
(--OH) is polar due to electronegative oxygen. forms hydrogen bonds with water, helping dissolve compounds like sugar
119
Carbonyl Group
(>C=O) (carbon has two single bonds and is double bonded to oxygen) sugars with ketone groups are called ketoses; those with aldehydes are called aldoses
120
Carboxyl Group
(--COOH) (carbon is single bonded to something and OH and double bonded to O) acts as an acid--donates h+ because the covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is polar
121
Amino Group
(--NH2) all single bonds--acts as a base; can pick up an H+ from the surrounding solution
122
Sulfhydryl Group
(--SH) two react to form a cross-link that help stabilize protein structure
123
Phosphate Group
(--OPO3^2-) contributes to negative charge. confers on a molecule the ability to react with water
124
Methyl Group
(--CH3) all single bonds--affects the expression of genes when on DNA or on proteins bound to DNA
125
Macromolecules
members of these three classes--carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids--are huge
126
Polymer
a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by COVALENT bonds
127
Monomers
the repeating unites that serve as the building blocks of a polymer
128
Enzymes
specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions
129
Dehydration reaction
the reaction connecting monomers in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a water molecule
130
Hydrolysis
polymers are disassembled into monomers when the bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule with a hydrogen from water attaching to one monomer and the hydroxyl from water attaching to another
131
Carbohydrates
include sugars and polymers of sugars
132
Monosaccarides
the simplest carbohydrates, simple sugars
133
Aldose
Carbonyl group at the end of a carbon skeleton
134
Ketose
carbonyl group within the carbon skeleton
135
Disaccaride
two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage
136
What kind of bond bonds disaccharides?
glycosidic linkages
137
Polysaccarides
macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages. Some are storage material, some are building material
138
Storage Polysaccharides
Starch and glycogen
139
Starch
stored by plants, a polymer of glucose monomers, as granules within cellular structures known as plastids, they store glucose
140
Glycogen
stored by animals, a polymer of glucose that is like amylopectin but more extensively branched
141
Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose and Chitin
142
Cellulose
major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells
143
Chitin
the carbohydrate used by arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans, and related animals) to build their exoskeletons--the hard case that surrounds the soft parts of an animal
144
Lipids and what are they bonded by
they mix poorly, if at all with water (hydrophobic behavior) connected by Ester bonds
145
Fat
constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids
146
Fatty Acid
has a long carbon skeleton, the carbon at one end is a part of a carboxyl group, the functional group that gives it the name fatty acid.
147
Triacylglycerol
consists of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule
