Chapters 1&2 Flashcards
Psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
Empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation; Aristotle, Bacon, Wundt
Structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection (looking inward) to discover the structural elements of the human mind; Titchnee
Functionalism
a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish; explore emotions, memoried, habits, willpower, and stream of consiousness; James, Calkins
Humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth based partly on environment; Rogers, Maslow
Nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
Natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival with most likely be passed on to succeeding generations; Darwin
Levels of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
Biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
Basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
Clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy
Hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.”I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon
Critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations.
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
Case Study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles; Piaget
Survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.
False consensus effect
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
Population
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.
Random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
Correlation
a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other.
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
Illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists.
Experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variable.
Double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Experimental condition
in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Control condition
in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
Independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated–the variable whose effect is being studied.
Dependent variable
the outcome factor – the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
Mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtaining by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
Statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
Culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
