Chapter4 Flashcards
What lobe is crucial for memory formation?
Medial temporal lobe
Which regions are included in the medial temporal lobe?
Hippocampus, parahippocampal
What brain layer works with the medial temporal lobe for memory?
Cerebral cortex
What are the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex?
Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
What does declarative memory involve?
Facts, data, events
How are declarative memories recalled?
Consciously
What are the two types of declarative memories?
Semantic and episodic
What do semantic memories consist of?
Cultural knowledge, concepts
Where are semantic memories processed?
Cortical regions
What characterizes episodic memories?
Personal experiences
What type of memory involves recalling sights, sounds, time, space, and emotions?
Episodic memory
Who is H.M.?
Patient known for brain science
What did H.M.’s case help understand?
Learning and memory processes
What happened to Henry Molaison after a childhood blow to the head?
Severe seizures developed
What surgical procedure did Henry Molaison undergo?
Removed sections of medial temporal lobes
What was the outcome of Molaison’s surgery?
Seizures abated but permanent amnesia
What type of memories could Henry Molaison still recall?
Scenes from childhood and historical events
What could Henry Molaison not do after his surgery?
Form new conscious memories
What was Molaison’s memory condition?
Anterograde amnesia
What cognitive abilities did Molaison retain?
Intellect, personality, perception
Could Molaison acquire new motor skills?
Yes
What task did Molaison become proficient at?
Tracing patterns
What regions of the brain were studied in Molaison?
Hippocampus, parahippocampal region
What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?
Short-term to long-term
Which regions produce memories of facts and events?
Hippocampus, parahippocampal region, cerebral cortex
What handles emotional or behavioral memories?
Amygdala, striatum, cerebellum
What is the dentate gyrus responsible for?
Memories of events
What unique process occurs in the dentate gyrus of the adult brain?
Neurogenesis
What color are the newborn cells in the dentate gyrus image?
Blue
What do support cells in the dentate gyrus called?
Glia
What role do new cells in the dentate gyrus play?
Learning and memory
What is the function of the amygdala?
Modulates fight-or-flight responses
What does the parahippocampal region assist with?
Encoding ‘what’ of memories
What type of memory is being described?
Long-term declarative memory
What type of memory allows holding a phone number temporarily?
Working memory
What happened to H.M. regarding memory?
Could not form new memories
How many types of memories are there?
Long-term and short-term
What is the capacity of short-term memories?
Limited amount of data
What happens to data in working memory if not transferred?
Decay after seconds
Which part of the brain coordinates working memory?
Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)
What functions does the PFC control?
Attention, decision-making
What is particularly active in the PFC during concentration?
Keeping phone numbers in mind
What do animal studies suggest about PFC neurons?
Fire in spurts
Did H.M. lose working memory?
No
What type of memory is spatial memory a part of?
Declarative memory
What have studies shown about areas and neurons in the brain?
Process specific information
What are ‘place cells’?
Neurons in hippocampus
What do place cells do?
Light up in familiar spaces
What happens in mice navigating a maze?
Specific neuronal activity sequences
What happens to patterns as animals learn the maze?
Become distinct
What brain structure changes due to learning complex routes?
Hippocampus
Where are grid cells located?
Entorhinal cortex
What do grid cells represent?
Coordinates in space
What type of memory is nondeclarative memory also known as?
Implicit or procedural
How is nondeclarative memory retrieved?
Without conscious effort
What type of memory is used for learned motor skills?
Procedural memory
Did H.M. lose procedural memory?
No
Why do we know that H.M. did not lose procedural memory?
He could learn new motor skills
H.M. shows deficits in which types of memory?
Some types
What do deficits in H.M. indicate about memory?
Different types encoded separately
Which brain areas are important for motor skill learning?
Basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex, cerebellum
What is the function of the basal ganglia?
Habit center
How does the brain store memories?
Changes at synapses
What is synaptic plasticity?
Remodeling of synapses
What changes occur for long-term memory encoding?
Synapse changes, neurotransmitter, receptors
What do presynaptic neurons release?
Neurotransmitters
What do receptors on postsynaptic neurons interact with?
Neurotransmitters
What is transformed into a chemical signal by presynaptic neurons?
Electrical signal
What do neurotransmitters bind to in the postsynaptic neuron?
Receptors
What do receptors unleash upon binding neurotransmitters?
Molecular events
What do receptors release?
Neurotransmitters
What can neurotransmitters be recycled into?
Presynaptic terminal
Which animal model was important for studying synaptic plasticity?
Aplysia californica
Why is Aplysia californica significant in neuroscience?
Few and easy to observe nerve cells
What did researchers identify in Aplysia related to learning and memory?
Chemical and structural changes
What do alterations in gene expression affect?
Long-term synaptic changes
Which receptors are important for long-term memory?
NMDA receptors
What molecule is crucial for long-term memory formation?
CREB
What are the two key processes for synaptic plasticity?
LTP and LTD
What does LTP stand for?
Long-term potentiation
What effect does LTP have on synaptic strength?
Increases strength
In which brain region is LTP especially prominent?
Hippocampus
What does LTD stand for?
Long-term depression
What effect does LTD have on synapse effectiveness?
Decreases effectiveness
What is LTP essential for?
Memory consolidation
What has LTP been extensively studied in?
Hippocampus
What is the role of glutamate in LTP?
Increase receptors
What is glutamate?
Prevalent neurotransmitter
What do NMDA and AMPA receptors do?
Permit ion flow into cell
What ions do NMDA and AMPA receptors allow in?
Calcium and sodium
How does increasing receptor number affect synapses?
Strengthens synapse
What role do calcium ions play in cells?
Second messengers
What does LTP boost in the postsynaptic cell?
Calcium ions concentration
What type of enzymes are activated by calcium in LTP?
Kinase proteins
What type of enzymes are activated by calcium in LTD?
Phosphatases
What is stabilized during LTP?
Synaptic changes
What molecules are activated by increased calcium ions in LTP?
cAMP
What activates several kinds of enzymes in neurons?
Repetitive experience
What does CREB activate in the nucleus of the neuron?
Genes for protein synthesis
What do neurotrophins stimulate?
Growth of the synapse
Where are declarative memories encoded?
Hippocampus
Which part of the brain is responsible for long-term storage of memories?
Frontal lobes
What happens to the role of the hippocampus over time?
Less important for older memories
What may enable manipulation of synaptic plasticity?
Pharmaceutical and technological advances
What disorders could new treatments target?
Synapse-related neurological disorders
What harmful memories can treatments aim to eradicate?
Memories tied to PTSD
What is the capacity of the brain for long-term memories?
Unlimited
What is the limitation of short-term memories?
Limited data for limited time
What is emotional memory?
Nondeclarative memory with learned responses
Who identified the six basic emotions?
Paul Ekman
What are the six basic emotions?
Anger, fear, surprise, disgust, joy, sadness
What is linked to physiological responses in emotions?
Neural circuits
What brain structures are linked with emotions?
Amygdala, insula, PAG
Where is the periaqueductal gray located?
Midbrain
Which neurons project to the periaqueductal gray?
Prefrontal cortex, amygdala, insular cortex
What does the periaqueductal gray connect to?
Central amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, brainstem, spinal cord
What does the amygdala integrate?
Emotions, behavior, motivation
What type of conditioning is dependent on the amygdala?
Classical conditioning
What does the amygdala help interpret?
Fear
What does the amygdala distinguish?
Friends from foes
What does the amygdala identify?
Social rewards
What emotion does the insula primarily process?
Disgust
What is a protective reaction associated with the insula?
Avoiding poison
What additional function is the insula implicated in?
Feeling pain
What is the role of the periaqueductal gray?
Pain perception and stress responses
What types of behaviors are associated with the periaqueductal gray?
Defensive, reproductive, anxiety
Which pain-reducing compounds’ receptors are in the periaqueductal gray?
Morphine and oxycodone
What drives human actions?
Necessities and rewards
What is affective decision-making?
Choices under risk
What do researchers investigate in decision-making?
Reward and risk balance
How does emotional state affect decision-making?
Affects balance
What brain region is responsible for self-regulation?
Lateral prefrontal cortex
Why might teens be more tolerant of risky behaviors?
Developing brains and peer acceptance sensitivity
How does brain development relate to emotional decision-making changes with age?
Lateral prefrontal cortex matures gradually in adolescents
What happens to PFC function with age?
Diminishes
What neurotransmitter is linked to reward pathways?
Dopamine
What brain regions are influenced by dopamine in reward processing?
Hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex
What is the me-solimbic pathway known as?
Reward pathway
What is the major neurotransmitter in the me-solimbic pathway?
Dopamine
Where does the me-solimbic pathway connect?
VTA to nucleus accumbens
What processes are involved in the me-solimbic pathway?
Rewards and motivation
What activates neurons that release dopamine?
Signals of reward
What influences emotional reaction more, expectation or reward?
Expectation of reward
What happens when the actual reward differs from prediction?
Reward learning occurs
What increases when a reward is greater than anticipated?
Dopamine signaling increases
What happens if a reward is less than expected?
Dopamine signaling decreases
What occurs with a correctly predicted reward?
No changes in dopamine
What did recent research show about dopaminergic responses?
Vary among people
What brain areas impact motivation and reward?
Striatum and prefrontal cortex
What is the amygdala implicated in?
Reward learning and motivation
Who has greater dopamine signaling according to researchers?
Go-getters
What does the brain’s reward system reinforce?
Behaviors associated with rewards
What symptom can aberrant circuitry lead to?
Inappropriate aggression
What is the function of the lateral habenula?
Encode punishment
What neurotransmitter is inhibited by the lateral habenula?
Dopamine
What type of disorders is linked to dysfunction of the lateral habenula?
Neuopsychiatric disorders
What emotions is the amygdala associated with?
Negative emotions
What can stimulating the amygdala trigger?
Rage and aggression
What happens when specific sections of the amygdala are removed?
More docile behavior
What can inappropriate activation in the brain’s reward systems lead to?
Aggression
Which brain chemical is associated with love?
Oxytocin
What type of animals do researchers study to understand love?
Prairie voles
What was the effect of increased oxytocin receptor levels in the brain?
Faster partner preferences
