Chapter Definitions Flashcards
Organizational Behaviour (OB)
The study of what people think, feel, and do in and around organizations
Organizations
Groups of people who work independently toward some purpose
Organizational Effectiveness
Broad concept represented by several perspectives, including the organizations fit with the external environment, internal subsystems configuration for high performance, emphasis on organizational learning, and ability to satisfy the needs of key stakeholders
Open systems
A perspective which holds that organizations depend on the external environment for resources, affect that environment through their output, and consists of internal subsystems that transform inputs into outputs
Organizational efficiency
The amount of outputs relative to inputs in the organization’s transformation process
Organizational learning
a perspective which holds that organizational effectiveness depends on the organization’s capacity to acquire, share, use, and store valuable knowledge
Intellectual capital
A company’s stock of knowledge including human capital, structural capital, and relationship capital
Human capital
The stock of knowledge, skills, and abilities amongst employees that provide economic value to the organization
Structural capital
Knowledge embedded in an organization systems and structures
Relationship capital
The value derived from an organization’s relationship with customers, suppliers, and others
High performance work practices hpwp
a perspective which holds that effective organizations incorporate several workplace practices that leverage the potential of human capital
Stakeholders
Individuals, groups, and other entities that affect, or are affected by the organization’s objectives and actions
Values
Relatively stable, evaluative beliefs that guide a person’s preferences for outcomes or courses of action in a variety of situations
Ethics
The study of moral principles or values that determine whether actions are right or wrong and outcomes are good or bad
Corporate social responsibility CSR
organizational activities intended to benefit society and the environment beyond the firm’s immediate financial interest or legal obligations
Globalization
Economic, social, and cultural connectivity with people in other parts of the world
Surface-level diversity
the observable demographic or physiological differences in people, such as their race, ethnicity, gender, age, and physical disabilities.
Deep-level diversity
Differences in the psychological characteristics of employees, including personalities, beliefs, values, and attributes.
Work-life balance
The degree to which a person minimizes conflict between work and non-work demands
Virtual work
Work performed away from the traditional physical workplace by using information technology
Evidence-based management
The practice of making decisions and taking actions based on research evidence
Role perceptions
The degree to which a person understands the job duties assigned to or expected of him or her
Organizational citizenship behaviours OCBs
various forms of cooperation and helpfulness to others that support the organization’s social and psychological context
Counterproductive work behavior CWBs
Voluntary behaviours that have the potential to directly or indirectly harm the organization
Presenteeism
Attending scheduled work when one’s capacity to perform is significantly diminished by illness or other factors
Showing up to work and doing fuck all!
Personality
the relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics
Five factor model FFM
The five broad dimensions representing most personality traits:
- Conscientiousness
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism
- Openness
- Extraversion
Conscientiousness
Personality dimension describing people who are organized, dependable, goal focused, thorough, disciplined, methodical and industrious
Neuroticism
Personality dimension describing people who tend to be anxious, insecure, self-conscious, depressed, and temperamental
Extraversion
Personality dimension describing people who are outgoing, talkative, sociable, and assertive.
Myers-Briggs type indicator mbti
An instrument designed to measure the elements of Jungian personality theory, particularly preferences regarding perceiving and judging information
Moral intensity
The degree to which an issue demands the application of ethical principles
Moral sensitivity
A person’s ability to recognize the presence of an ethical issue and determine its relative importance
Mindfulness
persons receptive and impartial attention to and awareness of the present situation as well as to one’s own thoughts and emotions in that moment
Individualism
Across cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture emphasize Independence and personal uniqueness
Collectivism
across cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture emphasized duty to groups to which they belong, and to group Harmony
Power distance
Cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture accept unequal distribution of power in a society
Uncertainty avoidance
Cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture tolerate ambiguity (low uncertainty avoidance) or feel threatened by ambiguity and uncertainty (high uncertainty avoidance)
Achievement nurturing orientation
cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture emphasize competitive versus cooperative relations with other people
Self concept
An individual self beliefs and self-evaluations
Self enhancement
a person’s inherent motivation to have a positive self concept and to have others perceive him or her favorably, such as being competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, and important
Self verification
A person’s inherent motivation to confirm and maintain his or her existing self-concept
Self-efficacy
a person’s belief that he or she has the ability, motivation, correct role perceptions, and favorable situation to complete a task successfully
Locus of control
A person’s general belief about the amount of control he or she has over personal life events
Social identity theory
A theory stating that people define themselves by the groups to which they belong to or have an emotional attachment
Perception
The process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us
Selective attention
The process of attending to some information received by our senses and ignoring other information
Confirmation bias
the process of screening out information that is contrary to our values and assumptions and two more readily accept confirming information
Categorical thinking
Organizing people and objects into perceived categories that are stored in our long-term memory
Mental models
Knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain, and predict the world around us
Stereotyping
The process of assigning traits to People based on their membership in a social category
Attribution process
The perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behavior event is caused largely by internal or external factors
Self-serving bias
Tendency to attribute our favorable outcomes to internal factors and our failures to external factors
Fundamental attribution error
Tendency to see the person rather than the situation as the main cause of that person’s behavior
Self-fulfilling prophecy
The perceptual process in which our expectations about other person cause that person to act more consistently with those expectations
Positive organizational behaviour
a perspective of organizational behaviour that focuses on building positive qualities and traits within individuals are institutions as opposed to focussing on what is wrong with them
Halo effect
a perceptual error whereby our general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, colours are perception of other characteristics of that person
False consensus effect
a perceptual error in which we over-estimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own
Primary effect
A perceptual error in which we quickly form an opinion of people based on the first information we receive about them
Recency effect
A perceptual error in which the most recent information dominates our perception of others
Johari window
the model of mutual understanding that encourages disclosure and feedback to increase our own open area and reduce the blind, hidden, and unknown areas
Contact hypothesis
Theory stating that the more we interact with someone, the less prejudiced or perceptually biased we will be against that person
Empathy
A person’s understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of others
Global mindset
An individuals ability to perceive, appreciate, and empathize with people from other cultures, and to process complex cross-cultural information
Emotions
Physiological, behavioral, and psychological episodes experienced towards an
object, person, or event that create a state of readiness.
Attitudes
The cluster of beliefs,
assessed feelings, and behavioural intentions towards a person, object, or event (called an attitude object ).
Cognitive Dissonance
An emotional experience caused by a perception that our beliefs, feelings,and behaviour are incongruent with each other.
Example: people that smoke know it’s bad for them however they justify it in their mind. This is an example of conflict between the knowledge and perception of smoking and their feelings and behaviours towards it.
Emotional Labour
The effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired
emotions during interpersonal
transactions.
Emotional Dissonance
The psychological tension experienced when the emotions people are
required to display are quite different from the emotions they actually experience at that moment.
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
A set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and
reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others.
Job Satisfaction
A person’s evaluation
of his or her job and work
context.
exit-voice-loyalty-neglect
(EVLN) model
The four ways, as indicated in the name, that employees respond to job dissatisfaction.
Service Profit Chain Model
A theory explaining how employees’ job satisfaction influences company profitability indirectly
through service quality, customer loyalty, and related factors.
Affective Organizational
Commitment
An individual’s emotional attachment to, involvement
in, and identification with an
organization.
Continuance Commitment
An individual’s calculative attachment to an organization.
Trust
Positive expectations one
person has towards another person in situations involving risk.
Stress
An adaptive response to
a situation that is perceived as
challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being.
General Adaptation Syndrome
A model of the stress experience, consisting of three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.
Stressors
Environmental conditions
that place a physical or
emotional demand on the person.
Psychological Harassment
Repeated and hostile or
unwanted conduct, verbal comments, actions, or gestures that affect an employee’s dignity or
psychological or physical integrity and that result in a harmful work environment for the employee.
Workaholic
A person who is highly involved in work, feels compelled to work, and has a low enjoyment of work.
Employee Engagement
Individual’s emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and
purposive effort towards work related goals.
Drives
Hardwired characteristics
of the brain that correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium by producing emotions
to energize individuals.
Needs
Goal-directed forces that people experience.
Need for Achievement (nAch)
A learned need in which people want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals and desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success.
Need for affiliation (nAff)
A learned need in which people seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation.
Need for power (nPow)
A learned need in which people want to control their environment, including people and material resources, to benefit either themselves
(personalized power) or
others (socialized power).
Four-drive theory
A motivation theory based on the innate drives to (BALD):
-Bond
-Acquire
-Learn
-Defend
that incorporates both emotions and rationality.
Expectancy theory
A motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is directed towards behaviours that people believe will lead to desired outcomes.
Organizational behaviour
modification (OB Mod)
A theory that explains employee behaviour in terms of the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behaviour.
Social cognitive theory
A theory that explains how learning and motivation occur by observing and modelling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behaviour.
Self-reinforcement
Reinforcement that occurs when an employee has control over a reinforcer but doesn’t ‘take’ it until completing a self-set goal.
Goal setting
The process of motivating employees and clarifying
their role perceptions by
establishing performance
objectives.
Balanced scorecard (BSC)
A goal-setting and reward system that translates the organization’s vision and mission into specific,
measurable performance goals related to financial, customer, internal, and learning/growth (i.e., human capital) processes.
Strengths-based coaching
A positive organizational behaviour approach to coaching and feedback
that focuses on building and
leveraging the employee’s
strengths rather than trying to correct his or her weaknesses.
Multisource (360-degree)
feedback
Information about an
employee’s performance collected from a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers.
Distributive justice
Perceived fairness in the individual’s ratio of outcomes to contributions relative to a comparison of other’s ratio of
outcomes to contributions.
Procedural justice
Perceived fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources.
Equity theory
A theory explaining
how people develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution and exchange of
resources.
Job evaluation
Systematically rating the worth of jobs within an
organization by measuring their required skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions.
Gainsharing plan
A team-based reward that calculates bonuses from the work unit’s cost savings
and productivity improvement.
Employee share ownership
plans (ESOPs)
A reward system that encourages employees to buy company shares
Share options
A reward system that gives employees the right to purchase company shares at a
future date at a predetermined
price.
Profit-sharing plan
A reward system that pays bonuses to employees on the basis of the previous year’s level of corporate profits.
Job design
The process of assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those
tasks with other jobs.
Job specialization
The result of division of labour in which work is subdivided into separate jobs assigned to different people.
Scientific management
The practice of systematically partitioning
work into its smallest
elements and standardizing tasks to achieve maximum efficiency
Motivator-hygiene theory
Herzberg’s theory stating that
employees are primarily motivated by growth and esteem needs, not by lower-level needs.
Job characteristics model
A job design model that relates the motivational properties of jobs to
specific personal and organizational consequences of those properties.
Skill variety
The extent to which employees must use different
skills and talents to perform tasks within their jobs
Task identity
The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole or an identifiable piece
of work
Task significance
The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the organization and/or larger society.
Autonomy
The degree to which
a job gives employees the freedom, independence, and
discretion to schedule their work and determine the procedures
used in completing it.
Job enlargement
The practice of adding more tasks to an existing job
Job enrichment
The practice of giving employees more responsibility
for scheduling, coordinating and planning their own work.
Empowerment
A psychological concept in which people experience
more self-determination,
meaning, competence, and impact regarding their role in the organization.
Self-leadership
The process of influencing oneself to establish the
self-direction and self-motivation needed to perform a task.
Self-talk
The process of talking
to ourselves about our own
thoughts or actions.
Mental imagery
The process of
mentally practicing a task and
visualizing its successful
completion.
Decision making
The conscious process of making choices among
alternatives with the intention of moving towards some desired state of affairs.
Rational choice paradigm
The view in decision making that people should—and typically do—use logic and all available information to choose the alternative with the highest value.
Subjective expected utility
The probability (expectancy) of satisfaction (utility) resulting from choosing a specific alternative in a decision.
Bounded rationality
The view that people are bounded in their decision-making capabilities, including access to limited information,
limited information processing, and tendency towards satisficing rather than maximizing when making choices.
Implicit favourite
A preferred alternative that the decision maker uses repeatedly as a comparison
with other choices.
Anchoring and adjustment
heuristic
A natural tendency for
people to be influenced by an initial anchor point such that they do not sufficiently move away from that point as new information is provided.
Availability heuristic
A natural tendency to assign higher probabilities to objects or events that are easier to recall from memory, even though ease of recall is also
affected by nonprobability factors (e.g., emotional response, recent events).
Representativeness heuristic
A natural tendency to evaluate probabilities of events or objects by the degree to which they resemble (are representative of) other events or objects rather than on objective probability information.
Satisficing
Selecting an alternative
that is satisfactory or “good
enough,” rather than the alternative with the highest value (maximization).
Intuition
The ability to know when a problem or opportunity exists and to select the best course of action without conscious
reasoning.
Scenario planning
A systematic process of thinking about alternative
futures and what the organization should do to anticipate and react to those
environments.
Escalation of commitment
The tendency to repeat an apparently bad decision or allocate more resources to a failing course of action.
Prospect theory effect
A natural tendency to feel more dissatisfaction from losing a particular amount than satisfaction from gaining an equal amount.
Creativity
The development of
original ideas that make a socially recognized contribution.
Divergent thinking
Reframing a problem in a unique way and generating
different approaches to the issue.
Employee involvement
The degree to which employees influence how their work is organized and carried out.
Power
The capacity of a person,
team, or organization to influence others.
Countervailing power
The capacity of a person, team, or organization to keep a more powerful person or group in the
exchange relationship.
Legitimate power
An agreement among organizational members
that people in certain roles can request certain behaviours of others.
Norm of reciprocity
A felt obligation and social expectation of helping or otherwise giving something of value to someone who has already helped or given something of value to you.
Referent power
The capacity to influence others on the basis of
an identification with and respect for the power holder.
Charisma
A personal characteristic or special “gift” that serves as a form of interpersonal attraction and referent power
over others.
Substitutability
A contingency of power pertaining to the availability of alternatives.
Centrality
A contingency of power pertaining to the degree and nature of interdependence between the power holder and others.
Social networks
Social structures of individuals or social units that are connected to each other through one or more forms
of interdependence.
Social capital
The knowledge and other resources available to people or social units teams, organizations) from a durable network that connects them to others.
Structural hole
An area between two or more dense social network areas that lacks network ties.
Influence
Any behaviour that attempts to alter someone’s
attitudes or behaviour.
Coalition
A group that attempts to influence people outside the group by pooling the resources and power of its members.
Upward appeal
A type of influence in which someone with higher authority or expertise is called on in reality or symbolically to support the influencer’s position.
Inoculation effect
A persuasive communication strategy of warning listeners that others will try to influence them in the future and that they should be wary about the opponent’s arguments.
Impression management
Actively shaping through selfpresentation and other means the perceptions and attitudes that others have of us.
Organizational politics
Behaviours that others perceive as self-serving tactics at the expense of other people and possibly the organization.
Machiavellian values
The belief that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to influence others and that getting more than one deserves is acceptable.
Teams
Groups of two or more
people who interact and influence each other, are mutually accountable
for achieving common goals
associated with organizational
objectives, and perceive themselves as a social entity within an organization.
Types of Teams
- Departmental Teams
- Production Service/Leadership Teams
- Self-directed teams
- Task force (project) teams
- Action Teams
- Advisory Teams
- Skunkworks
- Virtual teams
- Communities of practice
Process Losses
Resources (including time and energy) expended towards team development and maintenance rather than the task.
Brooks’s Law
The principle that adding more people to a late software project only makes it later.
Social Loafing
The problem that occurs when people exert less effort (and usually perform at a lower level) when working in teams than when working alone
Task Interdependence
The extent to which team members must share materials, information,
or expertise in order to perform their jobs.
Role
A set of behaviours that
people are expected to perform because they hold certain positions in a team and organization.
Norms
The informal rules and
shared expectations that groups establish to regulate the behaviour of their members.
Team Cohesion
The degree of attraction people feel towards the team and their motivation to remain members.
Team Efficacy
The collective belief among team members of the team’s capability to successfully
complete a task.
Teamwork Behaviour
Activities that are devoted to enhancing the quality of the interactions,interdependencies,
cooperation, and coordination of teams.
Taskwork Behaviour
Efforts devoted to understanding the task requirements, discovering the
“rules” by which the tasks are to be performed, establishing the patterns of interaction with equipment, exchanging task-related information, developing team solutions
to problems, and so forth.
Team Boundary Spanning
Team actions that establish or enhance linkages and manage interactions with parties in the external environment.
Team Building
A process that consists of formal activities intended to improve the development
and functioning of a work
team.
Self-directed Teams
Crossfunctional work groups that are organized around work processes, complete an entire piece of work requiring several interdependent
tasks, and have substantial autonomy over the execution of those tasks.
Virtual Teams
Teams whose members operate across space,
time, and organizational boundaries and are linked through information technologies to achieve organizational tasks.
Production Blocking
A time constraint in team decision making due to the procedural requirement that only one person may speak at a time.
Evaluation Apprehension
A decision-making problem that occurs when individuals are reluctant to mention ideas that seem silly because they believe (often correctly) that other team members are silently evaluating them.
Brainstorming
A freewheeling, face-to-face meeting where team members aren’t allowed to criticize but are encouraged to speak freely, generate as many ideas as possible, and build on the ideas of others.
Brainwriting
A variation of brainstorming whereby participants write (rather than speak about) and share their ideas.
Electronic Brainwashing
A form of brainstorming that relies on networked computers for submitting and sharing creative ideas
Nominal Group Technique
A variation of brainstorming consisting of three stages: participants
(1) silently and independently document their ideas
(2) collectively describe these ideas to the other team members without critique,
and then
(3) silently and independently
evaluate the ideas presented.
Communication
The process by which information is transmitted
and understood between two or more people.
Emotional Contagion
The nonconscious process of “catching” or sharing another person’s emotions by mimicking that person’s facial expressions and other nonverbal behaviour.
Media Richness
A medium’s data-carrying capacity, that is, the volume and variety of information that can be transmitted during a specific time.
Persuasion
The use of facts, logical
arguments, and emotional
appeals to change another person’s beliefs and attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing the person’s behaviour.
Information Overload
A condition in which the volume of information received exceeds the person’s capacity to process it.
Wikis
Collaborative web spaces
where anyone in a group can
write, edit, or remove material
from the website.
Management by walking
around (MBWA)
A communication practice in which executives get out of their offices and learn from others in the organization through face-to-face dialogue.
Grapevine
An unstructured and informal communication network founded on social relationships rather than organizational charts or job descriptions.
Leadership
influencing, motivating, and enabling others to contribute towards the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members
Shared leadership
The view that leadership is a role, not a position assigned to one person, consequently, people within the team and organization lead each other
Transformational leadership
A leadership perspective that explains how leaders change teams or organizations by creating, communicating, and modelling a vision for the organization or work unit and inspiring employees to strive for that vision
What are the four elements of transformational leadership?
- Developing communicator strategic vision
- Model the vision
- Encourage experimentation
- Build commitment to the vision
Managerial leadership
leadership perspective stating that effective leaders help employees improve their performance and well-being towards current objectives and practices
Servant leadership
The view that leaders serve followers, rather than vice versa, leaders help employees fulfill their needs and our coaches, Stewart’s, and facilitators of employee development
Path-goal leadership theory
a leadership theory stating that effective leaders choose the most appropriate leadership styles depending on the employee and situation, to influence employee expectations about desired results and their positive outcomes
What are the four path-goal leadership styles ?
- Directive
- Supportive
- Participative
- Achievement-oriented
What are the four contingencies of path goal theory?
- Skill and experience
- Locus of control
- Task structure
- Team dynamics
Situational leadership theory
Commercially popular but poorly supported leadership model stating that effective leaders vary their style (telling, selling, participating, delegating) with the motivation and ability of followers.
Fiedler’s contingency model
a leadership model stating that leader effectiveness depends on whether the person’s natural leadership style is appropriately matched to the situation (the level of situational control)
Leadership substitutes
A theory identifying conditions that either limit the leader’s ability to influence subordinates or make a particular leadership style unnecessary
Implicit leadership theory
A theory stating that people evaluate a leader’s effectiveness in terms of how well that person fits preconceived beliefs about the features and behaviours of effective leaders, (leadership prototypes) and that people tend to inflate the influence of leaders on organizational events.
What are the main leadership attributes?
Personality Self concept Leadership motivation Drive Integrity Knowledge of the business Cognitive and practical intelligence Emotional intelligence
Authentic leadership
The view that effective leaders need to be aware of, feel comfortable with, and act consistently with their values, personality, and self-concept
Organizational structure
the division of labour as well as the patterns of coordination communication workflow and formal power that direct organizational activities
Span of control
The number of people directly reporting to the next level in the hierarchy
Centralization
the degree to which formal decision-making authority is held by a small group of people, typically those at the top of the organizational hierarchy
Formalization
The degree to which organizations standardize behavior through rules, procedures, formal training, and related mechanisms
Mechanistic structure
An organizational structure with a narrow span of control and a high degree of formalization and centralization
Organic structure
An organization structure with a wide span of control little formalization and decentralized decision-making
Functional structure
An organizational structure in which employees are organized around specific knowledge or their resources
Divisional structure
An organizational structure in which employees are organized around geographic areas, outputs call my products or services, or clients
Globally integrated Enterprise
it organizational structure in which work processes and executive function are distributed around the world through global centres, rather than developed in a home country and replicated in satellite countries or regions
Team-based structure
Organizational structure built around self-directed teams that complete an entire piece of work
Matrix structure
an organizational structure that overlays to structures, such as a geographical divisional and product structure, in order to leverage the benefits of both
Network structure
An alliance of several organizations for the purpose of creating a product or serving client
Organizational strategy
the way the organization positions itself in a setting in relation to its stakeholders, given the organization’s resources, capabilities, and mission
Conflict
The process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party
Cast conflict
what type of conflict in which people focus their discussion around the issue while showing respect for people with other points of view
Relationship conflict
Type of conflict in which people focus on characteristics of other individuals rather than the issues as a source of conflict
Structural sources of conflict in organizations
Incompatible goals, differentiation, interdependence, scarce resources, ambiguous rules, communication problems
Win-win orientation
The belief that conflicting parties will find a mutually beneficial solution to their disagreement
Win lose orientation
The belief that conflicting parties are drawing from a fixed pie so the more one party receives the less one party will receive
Superordinate goals
Goals that the conflicting parties value and whose attainment requires the joint resources and effort of those parties
Third-party conflict resolution
Any of time to buy a relatively neutral person to help conflicting parties resolve their differences
Negotiation
Decision-making situations in which two or more interdependent parties attempt to reach agreement
Distributive situation
When the goals of two or more people are a zero-sum so that one can gain only at the others expense
Integrative situation
when party’s goals are linked, but not Zero sum, so that one person’s goal achievement does not block the goal achievement of another
Best alternative to a negotiation settlement (batna)
The best outcome you might achieve through some other course of action if you abandon the current negotiation
Force Field Analysis
Kurt Lewin’s model of system-wide change that helps change agents diagnose the forces that drive and restrain proposed organizational
change.
Unfreezing
The first part of the change process, in which the change agent produces disequilibrium
between the driving and restraining forces.
Refreezing
The latter part of the change process, in which systems
and structures are introduced
that reinforce and maintain the desired behaviours.
Action Research
A problem focused change process that combines action orientation (changing attitudes and behaviour) and research orientation (testing theory through data collection and analysis).
Appreciative Inquiry
An organizational change strategy that directs the group’s attention away from its own problems and focuses participants on the group’s potential and positive elements.
Large Group Interventions
Highly participative events that
view organizations as open systems (i.e., involve as many
employees and other stakeholders as possible) and adopt a future and positive focus of change.
Parallel Learning Structure
A highly participative arrangement composed of people from most levels of the organization who follow the action research model to produce meaningful organizational change.
