Chapter 9: What is science?

Question 1

Correspondence theory of truth

Answer 1

Something is true when it corresponds with reality, there is a physical reality which has priority

Question 2

Francis Bacon

Answer 2

• promoted systematic observation and inductive reasoning
• knowledge has to be extracted, not just observed

Question 3

Isaac Newton

Answer 3

• first principles have to be based on observation, experimentation and inductive reasoning instead of axioms

Question 4

Christian Huygens

Answer 4

• it is possible to verify principles when phenomena are in line with these principles
• truth was guaranteed when they can predict and verify

Question 5

Philosophy of science

Answer 5

What science is, how it is formed and how it works

Question 6

Logical positivism

Answer 6

Philosophy should stop thinking about metaphysics and understand scientific approaches instead

Question 7

1929 manifesto of the Vienna Circle

Answer 7

• empirical truths - claims through observation
• logical truths - claims through deductive logic

Statements not part of these are meaningless

Question 8

Scientific cycle

Answer 8

1. observation
2. induction of observations into general conclusions
3. verification of conclusions

Question 9

Problems with verification

Answer 9

• verification is logically impossible (induction problem)
• theories have many variables not directly observable
• how to define observable
• observations don’t guarantee correct understanding

Question 10

Karl Popper

Answer 10

Introduced falsificationism, the hypothetico-deductive model and degrees of falsifiability

Argued that scientists were never truly sure, progress is trial and error and theories passing falsifiability tests just means they are more likely to be correct

Question 11

Ad hoc modifications

Answer 11

Modifications made to a theory making it less falsifiable, should not be made

Question 12

Kuhn’s stages of science

Answer 12

1. pre-science
2. normal science
3. crisis
4. revolution
5. normal science
6. …

Question 13

Paradigm

Answer 13

Set of common views of what a discipline is about and how to solve problems

Question 14

Research programmes

Answer 14

Degenerative research programmes don’t allow new predictions and need ad hoc modifications

Progressive research programmes allow new predictions and can be tested empirically

Question 15

Postmodernists

Answer 15

Questioned special status of science - scientific knowledge is a social construction, knowledge is believed not known

Led to the science wars between scientists and postmodernists

Question 16

Pragmatism

Answer 16

Human knowledge is information about how to cope with the world and neither realist nor idealist

Did not have a huge impact:
- no distinction between scientific and non-scientific knowledge
- less coherent than logic and epistemology