Chapter 9 - Motivation and Emotion Flashcards
Motivation
Process that influences GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOUR
• Direction
• Persistence
• Vigour
Instinct Theory
Based on Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
• Genetic Programming is the cause of motivation
Instinct
Predisposition to behave a certain way to certain stimuli
• many instincts are not universal; not found among all members of a species
Instinct Theory 2.0
Modern View:
•Motivation: adaptive significance •SURVIVAL ADVANTAGES
birds migrate instinctively to avoid harsh environmental conditions, then comeback for resources
Drive Theory
Disruptions to homeostasis produce drives
Homeostasis 🧘♀️ ➡️ Drive 🤤 ➡️ Motivation to fulfill needs 🧘♀️🥨 💳🚶♀️
Homeostasis
Internal physiological equilibrium
State in which everything is maintained in the body
•Sensors }
•Response System } all in equilibrium
•Control Centre. }
Drives
States of internal tension that motivate you in a certain way to reduce that tension
Incentive Theory
Our behaviour is dictated by a desire for external rewards
• Motivated to “pull” something towards you. Achieve something
Incentive
A thing that motivates or encourages an organism to do something.
Incentive theory = ?
Drive theory = ?
Incentive Theory = “pull”
Drive Theory = “push”
• avoid something uncomfortable, like feeling thirsty
“Push” and “pull” = ?
Biological Drive Reduction
Expectancy Theory
EXPECTANCY × VALUE THEORY
•Goal-directed behaviours driven by:
- Strength of expectation (that a particular behaviour will lead to a goal)
- Value of goal (placed on the goal. Motivation)
Expectancy Theory Equation
𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Intrinsic Motivation
Perform an activity for its own sake
• rather than for the desire of an external reward
Extrinsic Motivation
Perform activity for reward or avoid punishment
Psychodynamic Theory
Most behaviour comes from:
• UNCONSCIOUS IMPULSES
• PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFENCES
Behaviour is predetermined, something we cannot control
What are the strongest drives for behaviour according to Freud and the Psychodynamic Theory?
Sex and Aggression
Humanistic Theory
Behaviour is considered to be free choice and free will as we search for self-actualization (the ultimate human motive)
• Abraham Maslow
Metabolism
Rate at which the body uses energy (calories)
Basal Metabolism
Number of calories you burn as your body performs its basal, life-sustaining function
• Calories you burn if you were to stay in bed all day, no activity
• “Resting” metabolism = 2/3 of normal energy use
How is hunger apart of homeostasis
Homeostasis PREVENTS us from “running low” on energy
• Eating not linked to immediate needs
• low energy 😪 ➡️ hunger 🤤 so that energy can be restored (homeostasis)
Set Point
Biologically determined physiological standard
• around which our body regulates fat mass
Physical Signal that Starts a Meal
Muscular contractions CORRELATES WITH feelings of hunger
• but are not producing the feelings of hunger
Signal that Starts a Meal (not a peptide or hormone)
Pattern of increase and decrease in BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS
• Glucose levels are LOW = hunger is INCREASED
• Glucose levels are high = hunger is decreased
What is the body’s main source of energy?
Glucose
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
A peptide secreted by the small intestine
• DECREASES hunger after a meal
Ghrelin
•Another peptide!
•INCREASES hunger
•Levels highest just before a meal
Weight and Appetite Signals
• Leptin
• ob gene
Leptin
• Hormone secreted by fat cells
• Signals brain to DECREASE hunger and increase energy expenditure
• long-term signal
ob gene
Directs fat cells to secrete leptin
What is the role of the Hypothalamus?
Involved in H unger, thirst, sexual arousal, and body temperature
• H omeostasis
Which Theory does Hunger & mechanisms in homeostasis reside?
Drive Theory. When something disrupts that homeostasis, we become motivated to do something to recover that homeostasis
Parts of the Hypothalamus
• Paraventricular nucleus
• Pituitary
• Ventromedial hypothalamus
• Lateral hypothalamus
Paraventricular nucleus
Part of the hypothalamus involved with various neurotransmitters, like neuropeptide Y - appetite stimulant
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Stopping eating
Lateral hypothalamus
Stimulates eating
Psychological Aspects of Eating
•POSITIVELY REINFORCED by good tastes of food
•NEGATIVELY REINFORCED by hunger reduction (remove the aversive stimulus, hunger, through eating)
•Expectations for both
• tastes good AND reduces hunger
More Psychological Aspects of Eating
• Social Pressures to maintain a certain figure can also affect our eating habits; motivated to eat or not
• Can affect how much they eat, what they eat, when they eat
Environmental and Cultural Factors with Eating
FOOD AVAILABILITY
• Food scarcity
• Low-cost foods
• Food TASTE, VARIETY, and SERVING SIZE
• CULTURAL INFLUENCES
- Can vary between places and countries; classically conditioned. Different people like different things, like smells
Genetic Influences on Obesity
Metabolism
Environmental Influences on Obesity
• Inexpensive poor-quality food
- like carbs, more tasty too
• “Supersizing”
- getting the best volume for the price; increases the amount of food you are consuming in an exaggerated way
• Decreased activity
- we do not do as much physical work due to technological advances. More entertainment available at the palm of our hands
Male Courtship
Females choose males
• Combat (may the male with best genes win)
• Display (of looks and talent)
Bateman’s Principle in Male Courtship
More variability in the reproductive success of males than females
• Many of the traits that are irresistible to females are controlled by hormonal fluctuations as the animal enters breeding season
• Males may have multiple mates and a high amount of offspring, some may not mate at all
Male-Male Competition
Limited females = more intense competition
• Males compete for females, and females then pick the males with the best genes to mate and pass on those genes to their offspring to ensure their survival
Valuable traits from Testosterone can be costly to males
Ornamental Species
Compete through their looks and skills in order to impress females
• e.g. bowerbird
Female Courtship
When males invest more in parental care…
• Males wait longer under they can reproduce again
• Male are choosier
• Pressure for females to attract
a mate
E.g., Northern Jacanas, Seahorses, Praying mantises
Mutual Courtship
Pair Bond
• Pair of animals in prolonged courtship
• Often spend a lot of energy on raising young
• Long term partners, can be for life
• offspring tend to live longer lives
Emotions
Mental states or feelings associated with our evaluation of our experiences
Link between Motivation and Emotion
Emotions motivate our actions. We react when our goals are blocked or met in some way. These reactions can vary widely based on how important the goal was
• Gratified, threatened, or frustrated
Adaptive Value of Emotion
Emotions DIRECT ATTENTION
• Negative emotions
• Positive emotions
(towards important people and things in our lives; comes in the form of a Gut Feeling to protect us)
SOCIAL COMMUNICATION
• Information about state of others
• Influence others’ behaviour
- emotions help us communicate and understand facial expressions, voice changes
Emotions tie us together
Features of Emotion
• Response to eliciting stimuli
• Result of cognitive appraisal
• Physiological response
• Include behavioural tendencies
Eliciting Stimuli
• Can be internal (thoughts) or external (world around us)
• Influence of INNATE factors (like instinct)
• LEARNING - our prior experiences shape how we react to certain stimuli
Cognitive Appraisal
Allows for INTERPRETATION and EVALUATION of sensory stimuli. What we perceive.
• Because cognitive appraisal happens FIRST, different appraisals can lead to different behaviour responses and outcomes
What is the Effect of Culture on Cognitive Appraisal?
•Similarities in appraisals for basic emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, etc.)
•Differences in appraisals of other emotions
Where do raw emotions originate?
Subcortical brain: Hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus
What interaction must happen for the brain to process emotions?
Interaction between the cortical and subcortical parts of the brain
Subcortical brain
Older part of the brain responsible for some emotions and desires, memory formation, and hormone production
• hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus
Where do emotions travel in the brain after sensory input?
Travel in 2 pathways from the thalamus: one to the cerebral cortex, and one to the amygdala
Cerebral Cortex
Receives sensory input from the thalamus, and processes it as PERCEPTIONS and INTEPRETATIONS
• Allows us to regulate our emotions
• Higher level functioning and decision making
Amygdala
Controls physiological and BEHAVIOURAL components of emotional responses
• Can process information faster that the cortex interprets what’s going on
Autonomic Responses
• Autonomic = automatic
• The idea behind polygraphs (machine that records physiological changes that occur as part of an emotional response)
• Recordings are a part of the autonomic nervous system - which is automatic and regulates involuntary physiological processes
Expressive Behaviours
Observable displays of emotion
• To infer emotions of others?
Fundamental Emotional Patterns (expressive behaviours)
• Emotions are similar across cultures
• Individuals who are blind express emotions
Facial Expressions (expressive behaviours)
• General agreement across cultures
• Women generally more accurate
• Judging emotion is best done in context
What shapes expressive behaviours?
Biological factors (basic emotion) & culture (how and when) shape expression
What effect does culture have on expressive behaviours?
Cultural display rules - dictate when and how particular emotions are expressed
Instrumental Behaviours
Behaviours directed at achieving a goal
•Emotions function as:
•‘Calls to action’
•Enhance performance for simple tasks
Unconscious Influences on Emotion - Facial Feedback Hypothesis
More likely to feel emotions that correspond to your FACIAL FEATURES
• feedback from your muscles plays a role in your emotions
Emotions and Animals
• Descent of Man
• The Expression of the Emotions in
Man and Animals
• Emotions are adaptive & motivational
• Similarities in humans and animals
Universal Emotions - Dr. Jenna Congdon
Emotions that are experienced across groups of people and animals
• She showed that humans can recognize emotional arousal and vocalizations across all classes of terrestrial vertebrates, which lends evidence to even more universal emotions
Other animals besides pets can express emotions to us
• Pigs
• Emotional contagion
• Bees
• Optimism
• Rats
• Happiness/Joy
Positive Welfare
Is usually the absence of anything negative
• What about focusing on what can be added?
•Animal Science •Research Labs
• welfare seeks to break stereotype behaviours like pacing
