Chapter 9

Question 1

Guided-imagery activity

Answer 1

Teacher guides learners in recalling relaxing images. Idea is to create a relaxed classroom environment that promotes pronunciation learning.

Question 2

Visual reinforcement

Answer 2

Use of visual aids to reinforce internalization of sounds. Phoneme (IPA) charts, pictures with associated sounds, sound-color chart (Silent Way)

Question 3

auditory reinforcement

Answer 3

Using sounds to reinforce internalization of sounds. Memory Peg.

Question 4

memory peg

Answer 4

Associating an auditory clue with a sound, such as “choo-choo” with /tʃ/. Can also be a short phrase associated with vowel pairs for vowel discrimination, such as “see it” for /iy, ɪ/, or “fat bird” for /æ, ɜr/

Question 5

tactile reinforcement

Answer 5

Use of touch to physically determine features such as aspiration (hand to mouth), vibration (hand to throat), or awareness of tongue position (against alveolar ridge for /d/)

Question 6

kinesthetic reinforcement

Answer 6

Body movement associated with speech to reinforce stress and intonation. Wiz of Oz exercise, etc.

Question 7

neurolinguistic programming

Answer 7

Connection between body, thoughts, and emotions. Incorporates both relaxation and multi sensory techniques. Central to NLP are neurological processes called states; awareness of states helps learners change pronunciation, even fossilized pronunciation.

Question 8

simulation

Answer 8

A drama technique, form of extended role play. Learner adopts a persona and improvises dialog in a given scenario (no written text)

Question 9

shadowing

Answer 9

An imitation technique, part of drama technique. Learner repeats either along with or slightly after the speaker. No body movement.

Question 10

mirroring

Answer 10

Another imitation technique. Learner repeats simultaneously with speaker, imitating speaker’s body movements, facial expressions, and gestures.

Question 11

Jazz Chant

Answer 11

Short, conversational chants with a strong rhythmic beat. Used for reinforcing stress and rhythm in speech. Especially effective when accompanied by body movement.

Question 12

Oral-dialogue journal

Answer 12

Free-speech recordings made by the learner and assessed by the teacher. Used to promote oral fluency. Teacher provides feedback on selected aspects of accuracy.

Question 13

Anxiety

Answer 13

Cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions
Cognitive: self-preoccupation, worry, irrelevant thorughts, negative self-evaluations, low self-esteem, feelings of inferiority
Affective: arousal tension, discomfort, sweating and shacking, etc.
Behavioral: avoidance and attempts to escape the situation.

Question 14

Social anxiety

Answer 14

Fear of negative evaluation by others. Based on poor social skills, lack of verbal fluency, difficulty processing nonverbal signals, focus on personality, appearance, etc., perceived to be unappealing, interruptions in task-performance.

Question 15

Self-efficacy

Answer 15

A person’s beliefs about their capability or competence to perform a particular behavior.

Efficacy expectation: a learner’s belief about producing vowel sounds
Outcome expectation: a learner’s beliefs about the consequences of accurate vowel sound production (being able to communicate successfully with native speakers).

Outcome expectations are dependent on self-efficacy judgments. Important to encourage learners to have optimistic expectations about their ability to perform successfully so that they have more positive mood, show greater persistence, and learn more.

Self-efficacy beliefs do not guarantee success, but a lack of such beliefs greatly increases the probability of failure.

Self-efficacy is based on Mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological and affective indices (incereased heart rate, sweating, hyperventilation, which usually debilitate performance).

Question 16

Total time hypothesis

Answer 16

Relationship between learning and time-on-task. More time, more learning.

Question 17

Deliberate practice

Answer 17

Highly effective. Learners focus on task, make conscious effort to imrpve, receive immediate feedback, have conscious knowledge of their performance, and perform the same or similar task repeatedly.

Question 18

Distributed practice

Answer 18

A large number of shorter learning sessions is more effective than cramming. “little and often”

Question 19

Expanding retrieval

Answer 19

A learning schedule whereby items are initially tested shortly after learned, with the delay gradually increasing across subsequent trials. Greater learning from producing the answer from memory rather than simply recognizing it.

Question 20

Testing effect

Answer 20

Testing has a stronger memory effect than repeated (receptive) study. Studying twice and testing yourself twice is more effective than studying four times.

Question 21

Rote learning

Answer 21

Memorization. Useful for proceduralizing and automatizing bottom-up aspects of language.

Question 22

Meaningful learning

Answer 22

Language acquisition is the marriage of meaning and linguistic form, so semantic processing (top-down) is necessary.

Question 23

Meaningful encoding

Answer 23

New information is related to pre-existing knowledge in personally relevant ways. Learners integrate different pieces of information (synthesize the information). Result of both is a neural network rather than a list of information.

Question 24

SQ3R

Answer 24

Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review. Important for memorization
Survey: skim/preview to obtain an overview of the information.
Question: think of relevant questions
Read: look for answers and integrate them into your own knowledge and experiences
Recite: Remember and produce the key ideas.
Review: Synthesize the information from different parts of the readings.

Question 25

Effective learning - summary

Answer 25

Control anxiety
develop self-efficacy
increase time on task
use deliberate practice
use distributed practice
use the testing effect
use meaningful encoding (synthesize information)
SQ3R

Question 26

Seven principles for teaching pronunciation

Answer 26

Teaching must focus on issues of fluency as well as accuracy
Should extend beyond the isolated word or sentence to encompass discourse.
Must take into account variations in learning styles by using multiple learner modes: visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic.
Should include sociopsychological concurs, such as ego boundaries and neurolinguistics
Should be open to other influences, such as drama, speech pathology, and neurolinguistics
Quality of feedback and practice benefit from instructional technology
Recognize the autonomy and authority of the learners, allow for student-centered classrooms and self-paced or directed learning.