Chapter 9

Question 1

Cognition

Answer 1

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Question 2

Metacognition

Answer 2

Cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes. This yields good academic performance.

Question 3

Concept

Answer 3

A mental grouping of similar objects, ideas, events, or people. (same thing as a schema)

Question 4

Prototype

Answer 4

A mental image or best example of a category (concept). Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow).

Things similar to our prototype of a concept are more readily perceived as actually in that concept.

Question 5

Algorithm

Answer 5

A methodical, logical rule, or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.

Question 6

Heuristic

Answer 6

A simple thinking strategy—a mental shortcut—that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm.

Question 7

Insight

Answer 7

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions. Causes a sense of satisfaction. Brain scans can pick up on insights.

Question 8

Confirmation Bias

Answer 8

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Question 9

Fixation

Answer 9

In cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving. (Especially after you deeply believe one side of a problem)

Question 10

Mental Set

Answer 10

A tendency to approach a problem in one way, often a way that has been successful in the past. This predisposes how we think.

Question 11

Intuition

Answer 11

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

Question 12

The Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 12

Judging how the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular stereotypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. Causes unintentional racism.

Question 13

The Availability Heuristic

Answer 13

Judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

Question 14

Overconfidence

Answer 14

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements.

Question 15

Belief Perseverance

Answer 15

Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

Question 16

Framing

Answer 16

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements.

Question 17

Nudge

Answer 17

Framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions. (ex. opt out of something)

Question 18

3 Facts of Intuition

Answer 18

1. Intuition is recognition born of experience.
2. Intuition is usually adaptive.
3. Intuition becomes more accurate when given a chance to unconsciously process.

Question 19

Creativity

Answer 19

The ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

Question 20

Convergent Thinking

Answer 20

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. Aptitude tests usually contain some form of this.

Question 21

Divergent Thinking

Answer 21

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions. Creativity tests usually contain some form of this.

Question 22

5 Components to Creativity

Answer 22

1. Expertise
2. Imaginative Thinking Skills
3. A Venturesome, Determined Personality
4. Intrinsic Motivation
5. A Creative Environment

Question 23

Animals’ Cognitive Skills

Answer 23

Some animals can…
- Use concepts and numbers
- Display insight
- Transmit culture
- Use other basic cognitive skills

Question 24

Language

Answer 24

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Question 25

Phonemes

Answer 25

In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

Question 26

Morphemes

Answer 26

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word. (ex. read + er)

Question 27

Grammar

Answer 27

In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

Question 28

Semantics

Answer 28

The language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds.

Question 29

Syntax

Answer 29

The set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

Question 30

Language Acquisition

Answer 30

• We are born with a built-in predisposition for leaning language rules
• Children learn grammar as they discern patterns in the language that they hear.
• We begin speaking any language we learn in nouns rather than in verbs and adjectives.

Question 31

Language Development: Babies

Answer 31

Babies begin to develop their receptive language, their ability to understand what is said to and about them, when they can recognize differences in speech.

Question 32

Language Development: 4 months

Answer 32

At 4 months, babies enter the babbling stage: the stage in speech development during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language.

Question 33

Language Development: 10 months

Answer 33

By 10 months, infants’ babbling has changed so a trained ear can identify the household language.

Question 34

Language Development: 1 year

Answer 34

Around 1 year, most children enter the one-word stage: the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Question 35

Language Development: 2 years

Answer 35

By age 2, most children have entered the two-word stage: the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences.

Question 36

Telegraphic Speech

Answer 36

During the two-word stage, a child will speak like a telegram, using mostly nouns and verbs. They also follow the rules of syntax in this kind of speech.

Question 37

Language Critical Period

Answer 37

Those who are not exposed to any language prior to the age of 7 lose the ability to master any language.

Question 38

Deafness: Critical Period

Answer 38

• Deaf children learn to sign the best before the age of 9.
• Children will become linguistically stunted if isolated from language during the critical period.

Question 39

Deafness: Cochlear Implants

Answer 39

Cochlear implants must be installed by 2 years of age to be completely effective, because the auditory nerve becomes repurposed to heighten other senses, it becomes less available for hearing. This is before the child’s age of consent.

Question 40

Aphasia

Answer 40

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).

Question 41

Broca’s Area

Answer 41

A frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech. Damage to this area causes impaired speaking, but this can be restored through electrical stimulation.

Question 42

Wernicke’s Area

Answer 42

A brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression. Damage to this area causes impaired understanding, which can not be restored.

Question 43

Language in Animals

Answer 43

Some animals display simple language processing.

Question 44

Linguistic Determinism

Answer 44

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think. This is deemed as “too extreme” by modern day psychologists.

Question 45

Linguistic Relativism

Answer 45

The idea that language influences the way we think. A weaker, more agreed upon correlation between thinking and language.

Question 46

Practicing Visualization

Answer 46

Simply watching an activity we have rehearsed will activate the brain’s internal stimulation of it. Imagining a physical experience will do the same thing, which activates some of the same neural networks that are active during the actual experience.