chapter 9-12

Question 1

metacognition

Answer 1

knowledge about our own thinking processes and using it to manage cognitive processes

• regulates thinking and learning with 3 essential skills:
  1) planning
  2) monitoring
  3) evaluating
  example: comprehension and problem solving

Question 2

declarative knowledge

Answer 2

FACTS
example: a person knows for a fact that 10/22/1987 is their birthday because they were born on the 22nd day of october in the year 1987

Question 3

procedural knowledge

Answer 3

HOW; knowledge of how to do something, expressed in behaviors rather than in words.
example: riding a bike

Question 4

concept map

Answer 4

diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; used to enhance learning and memory of a topic.

Question 5

teaching metacognitive strategies

Answer 5

younger students “look in” and evaluate their own thinking.
• self-reflection: skills used, achievements; did
child reach their goal?
• use questions as a guide or checklist:
- did you blend the sounds together?
- did you read with expression?
- speed?

Question 6

practicing complex learning strategies

Answer 6

using strategies on tasks requiring understanding the material, not just memorizing it.

Question 7

representativeness heuristic

Answer 7

automatically applying a heuristic based on our prototypes/stereotypes; judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
example: police who are looking for a suspect in a crime might focus disproportionately on black people in their search

Question 8

heuristic

Answer 8

a general strategy for solving ill-defined problems; mostly leads to right answer; simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.
example: if it is raining outside, you should bring an umbrella.

Question 9

problem solving steps

Answer 9

1. identify the problem
2. set goals
3. explore possible solutions
4. act
5. evaluate outcome

Question 10

constructivist theory of learning

Answer 10

students first make sense of the material

example: reciprocal teaching/learning = allow pairs of students to teach each other.

Question 11

vygotsky’s social constructivism

Answer 11

social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development/learning
vygotsky’s theory: bridges both social and psychological views of constructivism

Question 12

scaffolding

Answer 12

helping them find resources, keeping track of progress, breaking larger problems down to into smaller ones; adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child’s current level of performance.
example: when scaffolding reading, you might preview the text and discuss key vocabulary, or chunk the text and then read and discuss as you go.

Question 13

inquiry learning

Answer 13

approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by data and testing their conclusions; learning utilized by science teachers
process:
1) teacher presents a problem or question
2) students formulate hypotheses to explain the event or solve the problem
3) collect data to test the hypotheses
4) draw conclusions
5) reflect on original problem and thinking processes needed to solve it

Question 14

problem-based learning

Answer 14

classroom activity in which students acquire new knowledge and skills while working on a complex problem similar to those in the outside world.
example: students pitching ideas and creating their own business plans to solve a societal need.

Question 15

ill-structured problems

Answer 15

multiple answers, extended and productive interactions, unclear procedures; problems that lack well-defined paths to solution.

• rewards divert from goal, hinder in-depth processing
  example: predicting how to dispose of nuclear waste safely.

Question 16

collaborative groups

Answer 16

philosophy about how to relate to others, how to learn and work.

• dealing with people, respecting differences, sharing authority, building on knowledge of group
  example: pairs check = teams of four work in pairs on a set of exercises

Question 17

cooperative groups

Answer 17

way of working with others to attain a shared goal.
example: jigsaw = students are placed into “home groups” and “expert groups” and are each assigned a different topic within the same general topic

Question 18

reciprocal teaching

Answer 18

approach to teaching reading and listening comprehension in which students take turns asking teacher-like questions of classmates; the main goal is to help students understand and think deeply about they read.
strategies to help students learn in small reading groups:
1) summarizing content
2) ask questions
3) clarify difficult parts
4) predict what comes next

Question 19

social negotiation

Answer 19

aspect of learning processes that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives; the main goal is to establish/defend own positions, respect positions of others, working together to negotiate/co-construct meaning.

• involves talking and listening to one another
  example: the work that a group of students at a science summer camp did to create a scale model of the solar system

Question 20

levels of scaffolding

Answer 20

modeled, shared, interactive, guided, independent.

Question 21

cognitive apprenticeship

Answer 21

learner acquires knowledge/skills under guidance of an expert.

• features:
  1) students observe expert model performance
  2) get external support (coaching, tutoring, feedback)
  3) receive conceptual scaffolding; gradually fade
  4) apply knowledge of processes and content
  5) reflect on their progress
  6) explore new ways to apply their learning
  example: an instructor may communicate his or her own reasoning out loud to assist the students in understanding the thought process of a task.

Question 22

social cognitive theory

Answer 22

learning by observing the actions of others; views prejudice as an attitude acquired through direct instruction, modeling, and other social influences.

• two key elements:
  1) observational learning
  2) self-efficacy
  example: you may have learned altruistic behavior from seeing your parents bring food to a homeless person

Question 23

deep learning

Answer 23

understanding the “why” and “how” behind the details.

• students achieve this by:
  1) relating new material to what they already know
  2) integrating knowledge in expanding conceptual systems
  3) finding patterns and underlying principles
  4) evaluating and integrating new ideas
  5) understanding that knowledge is socially constructed
  6) reflecting on learning processes

Question 24

observational learning

Answer 24

learning by observing others.
example: a child watches their parent folding the laundry. they later pick up some clothing and imitate folding the clothes.

Question 25

self-efficacy

Answer 25

one’s sense of competence and effectiveness.
example: students with high academic self-efficacies might study harder because they believe that they are able to use their abilities to study effectively

Question 26

motivation

Answer 26

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

example: watching an olympic athlete and working hard in sports to become like that athlete

Question 27

cognitive behavior modification

Answer 27

procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction.
example: “i am smart!”

Question 28

emotional self-regulation

Answer 28

the capability to adjust emotions to a desired state and level of intensity.

• effectively interpret emotions in self and others
• identify effective goals/actions in emotional contexts
• regulate emotion and behavior in social situations
  example: self-awareness of own feelings, values, interests

Question 29

intrinsic motivation

Answer 29

activities that are internally rewarding; a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

• no incentives or punishments needed
• self-satisfying
  example: playing sports because you enjoy how they make you feel

Question 30

extrinsic motivation

Answer 30

created by external factors; a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

• earn a reward, avoid punishment, please someone else
  example: you may enjoy spending your day doing something other than work, but you’re motivated to go to work because you need a paycheck to pay your bills

Question 31

deficiency needs

Answer 31

maslow’s four lower-level needs, which must be satisfied first.
- physiological (survival), safety, belonging, self-esteem

Question 32

maslow’s hierarchy of needs: bottom to top

Answer 32

lower level: survival (physiological) and safety = [basic needs], belonging and self-esteem = [psychological needs]
higher level: cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization = [self-fulfillment needs]

Question 33

stable causes

Answer 33

attributing success to talent is stable, to effort is unstable (effort can change); relates to expectations about the future.
example: lee gets a D on his sociology term paper. if he attributes the grade to the fact that he always has bad luck, he is making a stable attribution. if he attributes the grade to the fact that he didn’t have much time to study that week, he is making an unstable attribution.

Question 34

internal locus of control

Answer 34

the belief that you control your own fate.

example: isaac, with his internal locus of control, believes that his hard work will get him the promotion

Question 35

learned helplessness

Answer 35

believing events/outcomes are uncontrollable; failure is inevitable.
example: low self-esteem; in adults: continuing to smoke despite several attempts to quit may cause a person to believe that they will always be a smoker.

Question 36

maslow’s hierarchy of needs (detailed): bottom to top

Answer 36

• physiological: breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion
• safety: security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of the family, of health, of property
• love/belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy
• esteem: self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others
• cognitive: knowledge, understanding, exploration
• aesthetic: beauty, balance, form
• self-actualization: morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts; achieving one’s potential

Question 37

external locus of control

Answer 37

those with an external locus of control believe that external forces, like luck, determine their outcomes.
example: danielle believes she does not do well on examinations

Question 38

categories of inquiry activities/processes

Answer 38

• procedural: hands-on, science procedures; collect data
• epistemic: draw conclusions based on evidence
• conceptual: connect to prior knowledge
• social: discuss, argue, debate, present