chapter 9-12 Flashcards
metacognition
knowledge about our own thinking processes and using it to manage cognitive processes
- regulates thinking and learning with 3 essential skills:
1) planning
2) monitoring
3) evaluating
example: comprehension and problem solving
declarative knowledge
FACTS
example: a person knows for a fact that 10/22/1987 is their birthday because they were born on the 22nd day of october in the year 1987
procedural knowledge
HOW; knowledge of how to do something, expressed in behaviors rather than in words.
example: riding a bike
concept map
diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; used to enhance learning and memory of a topic.
teaching metacognitive strategies
younger students “look in” and evaluate their own thinking.
• self-reflection: skills used, achievements; did
child reach their goal?
• use questions as a guide or checklist:
- did you blend the sounds together?
- did you read with expression?
- speed?
practicing complex learning strategies
using strategies on tasks requiring understanding the material, not just memorizing it.
representativeness heuristic
automatically applying a heuristic based on our prototypes/stereotypes; judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
example: police who are looking for a suspect in a crime might focus disproportionately on black people in their search
heuristic
a general strategy for solving ill-defined problems; mostly leads to right answer; simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.
example: if it is raining outside, you should bring an umbrella.
problem solving steps
- identify the problem
- set goals
- explore possible solutions
- act
- evaluate outcome
constructivist theory of learning
students first make sense of the material
example: reciprocal teaching/learning = allow pairs of students to teach each other.
vygotsky’s social constructivism
social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development/learning
vygotsky’s theory: bridges both social and psychological views of constructivism
scaffolding
helping them find resources, keeping track of progress, breaking larger problems down to into smaller ones; adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child’s current level of performance.
example: when scaffolding reading, you might preview the text and discuss key vocabulary, or chunk the text and then read and discuss as you go.
inquiry learning
approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by data and testing their conclusions; learning utilized by science teachers
process:
1) teacher presents a problem or question
2) students formulate hypotheses to explain the event or solve the problem
3) collect data to test the hypotheses
4) draw conclusions
5) reflect on original problem and thinking processes needed to solve it
problem-based learning
classroom activity in which students acquire new knowledge and skills while working on a complex problem similar to those in the outside world.
example: students pitching ideas and creating their own business plans to solve a societal need.
ill-structured problems
multiple answers, extended and productive interactions, unclear procedures; problems that lack well-defined paths to solution.
- rewards divert from goal, hinder in-depth processing
example: predicting how to dispose of nuclear waste safely.
collaborative groups
philosophy about how to relate to others, how to learn and work.
- dealing with people, respecting differences, sharing authority, building on knowledge of group
example: pairs check = teams of four work in pairs on a set of exercises
cooperative groups
way of working with others to attain a shared goal.
example: jigsaw = students are placed into “home groups” and “expert groups” and are each assigned a different topic within the same general topic
reciprocal teaching
approach to teaching reading and listening comprehension in which students take turns asking teacher-like questions of classmates; the main goal is to help students understand and think deeply about they read.
strategies to help students learn in small reading groups:
1) summarizing content
2) ask questions
3) clarify difficult parts
4) predict what comes next
social negotiation
aspect of learning processes that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives; the main goal is to establish/defend own positions, respect positions of others, working together to negotiate/co-construct meaning.
- involves talking and listening to one another
example: the work that a group of students at a science summer camp did to create a scale model of the solar system
levels of scaffolding
modeled, shared, interactive, guided, independent.
cognitive apprenticeship
learner acquires knowledge/skills under guidance of an expert.
- features:
1) students observe expert model performance
2) get external support (coaching, tutoring, feedback)
3) receive conceptual scaffolding; gradually fade
4) apply knowledge of processes and content
5) reflect on their progress
6) explore new ways to apply their learning
example: an instructor may communicate his or her own reasoning out loud to assist the students in understanding the thought process of a task.
social cognitive theory
learning by observing the actions of others; views prejudice as an attitude acquired through direct instruction, modeling, and other social influences.
- two key elements:
1) observational learning
2) self-efficacy
example: you may have learned altruistic behavior from seeing your parents bring food to a homeless person
deep learning
understanding the “why” and “how” behind the details.
- students achieve this by:
1) relating new material to what they already know
2) integrating knowledge in expanding conceptual systems
3) finding patterns and underlying principles
4) evaluating and integrating new ideas
5) understanding that knowledge is socially constructed
6) reflecting on learning processes
observational learning
learning by observing others.
example: a child watches their parent folding the laundry. they later pick up some clothing and imitate folding the clothes.
self-efficacy
one’s sense of competence and effectiveness.
example: students with high academic self-efficacies might study harder because they believe that they are able to use their abilities to study effectively
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
example: watching an olympic athlete and working hard in sports to become like that athlete
cognitive behavior modification
procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction.
example: “i am smart!”
emotional self-regulation
the capability to adjust emotions to a desired state and level of intensity.
- effectively interpret emotions in self and others
- identify effective goals/actions in emotional contexts
- regulate emotion and behavior in social situations
example: self-awareness of own feelings, values, interests
intrinsic motivation
activities that are internally rewarding; a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
- no incentives or punishments needed
- self-satisfying
example: playing sports because you enjoy how they make you feel
extrinsic motivation
created by external factors; a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
- earn a reward, avoid punishment, please someone else
example: you may enjoy spending your day doing something other than work, but you’re motivated to go to work because you need a paycheck to pay your bills
deficiency needs
maslow’s four lower-level needs, which must be satisfied first.
- physiological (survival), safety, belonging, self-esteem
maslow’s hierarchy of needs: bottom to top
lower level: survival (physiological) and safety = [basic needs], belonging and self-esteem = [psychological needs]
higher level: cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization = [self-fulfillment needs]
stable causes
attributing success to talent is stable, to effort is unstable (effort can change); relates to expectations about the future.
example: lee gets a D on his sociology term paper. if he attributes the grade to the fact that he always has bad luck, he is making a stable attribution. if he attributes the grade to the fact that he didn’t have much time to study that week, he is making an unstable attribution.
internal locus of control
the belief that you control your own fate.
example: isaac, with his internal locus of control, believes that his hard work will get him the promotion
learned helplessness
believing events/outcomes are uncontrollable; failure is inevitable.
example: low self-esteem; in adults: continuing to smoke despite several attempts to quit may cause a person to believe that they will always be a smoker.
maslow’s hierarchy of needs (detailed): bottom to top
- physiological: breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion
- safety: security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of the family, of health, of property
- love/belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy
- esteem: self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others
- cognitive: knowledge, understanding, exploration
- aesthetic: beauty, balance, form
- self-actualization: morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts; achieving one’s potential
external locus of control
those with an external locus of control believe that external forces, like luck, determine their outcomes.
example: danielle believes she does not do well on examinations
categories of inquiry activities/processes
- procedural: hands-on, science procedures; collect data
- epistemic: draw conclusions based on evidence
- conceptual: connect to prior knowledge
- social: discuss, argue, debate, present
