Chapter 9 Flashcards
Human motivation is
fundamental topic in social sciences
Motivation to work Motivation to work is:
basic topic in organizational behavior
Organization and organizational behavior are
interrelated (organizational tasks, organizational structures and processes, leadership processes, organizational culture)
is there a conclusive science of motivation?
No
what affects Motivation in public organizations?
public sector environment
what is the basis of human capital management?
human beings in organization and skills and knowledge are organization’s most important assets
What do public managers require
knowledge of motivation [linking organizational behavior] with political science, public administration, public policy processes
what can influence motivation and work attitudes in government?
Political and institutional context of government
what is work motivation
person’s desire to work hard and well (arousal, direction, persistence of effort in work settings)
what are the criticisms of motivation research?
what it means to work and well, what determines [personal] desire, how [to] measure behavior
what are intrinsic work motives?
mediated within the worker (psychological rewards)
what are extrinsic rewards?
externally mediated (salary, promotion)
What is the Classic distinction (theory of management)
difference between motivation to join organization, stay in it [vs.] motivation to work hard and well
what is organizational leadership?
incentives, guiding values, induce cooperation and effort
Does motivation determine performance?
no
Is ability a factor in performance
yes, an important one.
What are some factors of performance?
training, preparation, behaviors of leaders or coworkers
What is a theory in social administrative sciences?
explanation of phenomenon we want to understand
proposes concepts that refer to object, events that need to be defined and included as contributions to an explanation
States propositions of how concepts relate together, bring about the phenomenon
What do theories of work motivation explain?
How and why does it happen?
How and why does a person become highly motivated?
What do content theories explore?
analyzing needs, motives, rewards that affect motivation
- Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs
- McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y
- Herzberg: Two-Factory Theory
- McClelland: Needs-Based Model
What do process theories explore
concentrate on psychological, behavioral processes behind motivation
how goals, values, needs, rewards determine motivation
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy (content theory)
- Often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels. The first lower level is associated with the most basic needs: physiological needs.
- Higher needs only motivate behavior when the lower needs in the pyramid are met.
- Once an individual has moved upwards to the next level, needs in the lower level will no longer be prioritized and no longer motivate behavior.
- self-actualized persons] achieve [it] through hard work, dedication to duty or mission (self-satisfaction)
Theory X and Theory Y (content theory)
Douglas McGregor (1960)
- Theory X is the traditional theory that assumes workers lack the capacity for self-motivation and direction and therefore the organization must control and direct them.
- Theory Y is based on Maslow’s higher-order needs and emphasizes considering those needs when designing organizations to make jobs more interesting and responsible.
Two-Factor Theory (content theory)
Frederick Herzberg (1968)
- Two types of factors influence motivation:
- Hygiene factors – extrinsic incentives (organizational, group, supervisory conditions); externally mediated rewards (salaries)
- Motivators – intrinsic incentives (interest, enjoyment in work (growth, achievement, fulfillment of higher-order needs)).
- Hygiene factors can prevent only dissatisfaction, but motivators are essential to increasing motivation
Needs-based Model (content theory)
David McClelland Human Motivation -
- McClelland describes three types of motivational needs:
- Achievement motivation (n Ach)
- Authority/power motivation (n Pow)
- Affiliation motivation (n Affil)
- Main focus is on achievement motivation (n Ach):
- “A dynamic restlessness to achieve mastery over one’s environment through success at achieving goals by using one’s own cunning, ability, and effort”
- Most prominent theories in management and organizational behavior
Equity Theory (content theory)
J. Stacy Adams - equity in contributions, rewards influence[s] work behaviors
inputs and motivation are reduced when perception of fairness/equity (outputs) is tipped (i.e) when employee perceives effort is greater than reward.
There are two types of justice in organizations:
- Distributive justice (fairness and equity in distribution of rewards and resources)
- Procedural justice (fairness with which people feel employees are treated with organizational processes such as decision-making)
Research has shown that perceptions of higher levels of justice in organizations are correlated with positive work-related attitudes.
Expectancy Theory
Victor Vroom (1964) – Expectancy Theory – “(classic utilitarian idea) people will do what [results] in good [rather than] bad (271).”
- The main claim: An individual considering an outcome sums up the values of all outcomes that will result from the action, with each outcome weighted by the probability of its occurrence.
- Draws on the classic utilitarian ideas (maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain)
Integrates elements of needs, equity, and reinforcement theories - Based on three main ideas/concepts:
- Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes/rewards (e.g., how important are pay, flexibility, challenge?).
- Expectancy: employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about their capabilities.
- Instrumentality refers to the perception of employees with respect to whether outcomes/rewards will actually result.
- Effectively Two levels
- Expectancy I - likelihood efforts lead to particular performance level
- Expectancy II - particular performance level leads to given level of reward
Operant conditioning and behavior modification (process theory)
B. F. Skinner - relationships between observable behaviors and contingencies of reinforcement.
- The theory focuses on:
- Operant condition - stimulus-response psychology
- Reinforcement - behavior probably behavior will recur
- Operant theory - behaviorist school psychology
- Behavior modifications - using operant condition to modify behavior (OB Mod)Operant conditioning, that is, the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior
- The relationship between observable behavior and contingencies of reinforcements
- Positive reinforcement provides the most efficient means of influencing behavior. Punishment is less efficient and effective in shaping behavior.
- Low ratio reinforcement schedule produces rapid acquisition of the behavior but more rapid extinction when the reinforcement stops.
- Intermittent reinforcement, especially in highly variable intervals or according to a variable ratio schedule (reinforcement after long varying periods or after varying numbers of occurrences), requires more time for behavior acquisition, but extinction occurs more slowly when the reinforcement seasons.
Social cognitive (learning) theory (process theory)
Albert Bandura (1977, 1989, 1991, 1997) - blends operant conditioning theory with cognitive processes (goals, self-efficacy, personal effectiveness)
- Theory reflects value and limitations of operant conditioning and behavior modification.
- Theory draws from behavior modification but puts greater emphasis on internal cognitive processes, such as goals and a sense of self-efficacy.
- People form beliefs about what they can accomplish, set goals, anticipate results, devise course of action to achieve goals
- Self-efficacy personal judgment on how of how capable one is, executing course of action to deal with problem, achieve a goal (cognition, affect, behavior
- Gives attention to forms of learning and behavior change that may not be tied to external environment
- A main claim is that individuals learn in ways other than through extra reinforcement:
- Modeling the behavior of others
- Vicarious experiences
- Mental rehearsal and imagery
- Self-management through setting goals for oneself
Goal-setting theory (process theory)
Edwin Locke and Colleagues - specific goals lead to higher performance
- Theory simply states that difficult goals lead to higher performance than easy goals, no goals, or vague goals.
- Once established, goals focus behavior and motivate individuals to achieve desired and states.
- Commitment to the goals and feedback are also necessary to performance.
- As the value of a goal increases the commitment to the goal increases.
Self-determination theory (process theory)
- innate, essential, universal psychological needs energize people and determine their behavior
- Assumes people have an innate need for learning, growth, and development and that they are inherently curious and self-driven.
- People seek to satisfy three universal needs: (1) autonomy, (2) competence, and (3) relatedness.
- To the extent that these three needs are satisfied, the source of motivation becomes more internal and people to feel more autonomous and self-determined.
- Internal motivation and self-determination is positively related to focus, effort, productivity, effectiveness, satisfaction, and emotional well-being.
- Factors that promote internal motivation and self-determination include employee involvement in decision-making, discretion, feedback, skill variety, emotional support, friendship and camaraderie, and training and development.
Person-organizational fit (process theory)
fit between people and organizations’ values promote satisfaction and commitment (where people work, how long)
Improved performance appraisal systems
Method commonly used to enhance work motivation in organizations
Reforms involving the use of group-based appraisals (ratings for work group rather than an individual), or appraisals by a member’s peers
broadbanding or paybanding pay systems
Method commonly used to enhance work motivation in organizations
collapses traditional pay steps or grades into broader ”bands” or ranges allowing supervisors to more quickly more a well-performing person to a higher pay level.
Bonus or award system
one-time awards for instances of excellent performance or other achievements
Profit-sharing and gain-sharing plans
Method commonly used to enhance work motivation in organizations
Sharing profits with members of the organization (usually possible only in business organizations, for obvious reasons). Employee stock ownership plans are roughly similar, providing a means of rewarding employees when they organization does well.
Participate management and decision making
Method commonly used to enhance work motivation in organizations.
involves a sustained commitment to engage in more communication and sharing of decisions, through teams, committees, task forces, general meetings, open-door policies, and one-to-one exchanges.
