Chapter 8 psych Flashcards
What is learning?
A relatively permanent change in an organism’s knowledge due to experience with new information and behaviors(Relatively permanent, because you can un-learn things)
How do we learn? (associative learning)
Through associations – we make connections when things occur together (this is called associative learning
Classical Conditioning
learn to associate two stimuli and anticipate significant events
Pavlov (dogs)
Ivan Pavlov discovered a basic form of learning in which one stimulus or event predicts the occurrence of another stimulus or event
US
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that automatically elicits an unconditioned response
UR
Unconditioned response
an automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus
CS
conditioned stimulus
a neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a particular response after being paired with the unconditional stimulus
CR
Conditioned response
the response that the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning procedure
How is this related to celebrity endorsements of products
Marketers use Classical Conditioning to get you to feelpositively by their products
What are the five major conditioning processes
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
Acquisition
the initial learning stage in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is learned (when pairing is first happening)
Extinction
weakening of the conditioned association. Occurs in classical conditioning when the CS is presented without the US.
Spontaneous recovery
After a rest period, the reappearance of an extinguished CR
Generalization
Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
Discrimination
Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant but related stimuli (which shouldn’t predict US)
How does Little Albert Experiment relate to this
Watson used classical conditioning to create fear in a child named Albert. When presented with a lab rat(which Albert liked), Watson would make a loud sound that scared the baby. After a couple of pairings, Albert was scared of the rat, because he came to anticipate the scary sound
Operant Conditioning
The process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated
What is the Law of Effect
Edward Thorndike this, which stated that responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, while those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur
What researchers are influential to our understanding of operant conditioning
B. F. Skinner- SkinnerBox
Edward Thorndike- Law of effect
What are reinforcers?
A stimulus that increases the probability that the response will occur again in the future
Positive Reinforcement
The strengthening of a response through the addition of a stimulus after the response occurs
Adds something “good” to the situation
Like praise, treats, or cash
Negative reinforcement
The strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs Removes something “bad” from the situation Like when your car stops beeping because you finally put your seatbelt on or your alarm stops sounding because you woke up
What are punishers?
A stimulus that decreases the probability that the response will occur again in the future
Positive punisher
The weakening of a response through the addition of a negative/aversive stimulus
Like adding a spanking to discourage bad behavior
Negative Punisher
The weakening of a response through the removal of a desirable stimulus
Using time out (removing the fun/friends/tv/car privileges) to decrease bad behavior
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Involves reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Partial Reinforcement schedule
Includes schedule reinforcing a response only part of the time
Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement Reinforcement after a set number of responses
Variable-Ratio Reinforcement
Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (like playing slot machines)
Fixed-Interval Reinforcement
Reinforcement after a set time period has elapsed
Variable-Interval Reinforcement
Reinforcement after a random amount of time
Shaping
The process of reinforcing responses to gradually guide behavior closer and closer toward a desired response
. Teaching a complex behavior through a series of steps
Observational Learning
Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others Interestingly, we can learn by watching others in person or through TV or videos
Bandura
Pioneer researcher of observational learning
Modeling (learning from the behavior of others)
Bobo doll experiment (1961)
Bobo Doll Experiment
Individuals learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments
researchers who physically and verbally abused an inflatable doll in front of preschool-age children, which led the children to later mimic the behaviour of the adults by attacking the doll in the same fashion.
Modeling
(learning from the behavior of others
Prosocial modeling
nonviolent/pro-social behavior prompts similar behavior in others
Doing good because we see others do good
Across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior Socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong internalized conscience as preschoolers
antisocial modeling
Modeling nonviolent/pro-social behavior prompts similar behavior in others
Across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior
Socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong internalized conscience as preschoolers
Who do we model
We are particularly likely to imitate people we see as similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable
Really effective models include parents and celebrities
What is memory
Persistence of learning (remember Chapter 7) overtime through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Sensory Memory
First stage in forming explicit memories
Immediate and quickly fleeting recordings of sensory information in the memory system from all five senses
working memory
Conscious, actively processed information that can only be held briefly Takes attention to keep from forgetting
(shining your flashlight on specific information
Working memories details
Working memory, has a limited capacity (7±2)and a short duration (20 seconds) and thus, at any given moment, we can only consciously process a very limited amount of information
storage capacity- 7 +/- 2 items for about 20 seconds
People can store about seven plus or minus two bits of information in working memory
sensory memory details
The exact duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses (but in general it is brief)
But when signaled to recall anyone row immediately after the letters had disappeared, they could do so with near-perfect accuracy. This use of PartialRecall showed that the capacity of sensory memory is quite large(even though the duration is very quick)
storage capacity-relatively large, but only for an instant
long term memory
Person’s total knowledge of the world and of themselves Essentially unlimited storage capacity
long term details
storage capacity-limitless
memory processes
Encoding, storage and retrieval
Encoding
Making a memory
Storage
Retaining encoded information
Retrieval
Accessing stored information
Automatic encoding
Automatic processing and implicit memories
Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations.
Information is automatically processed about
Space Time Frequency
Effortful Encoding Strategies
Rehearsal,Spacing Effect, Serial Position effect, Semantic Encoding,Chunking, Hierarchies,Mnemonic and testing effect
Rehearsal
repeated practice leads to encoding– the more times you practice something, the less time it takes to relearn it on subsequent days of practice, Serial Position Effect
Spacing Effect
distributed practice leads to long term retention better than massed practice(memories are consolidated during sleep…so try to leave time for a nap!)
Cramming for a test is BAD
Serial Position Effect
recall is best for the first and last items in a list, whereas recall is poorer for items in the middle of list
t Keep your lists short! (when studying try not to always start at the same place)
Semantic Encoding
Best method for encoding of information is by its meaning (in terms of definition or its meaning to us personally) makes for “deeper” processing
Chunking
putting information into meaningful units
Hierarchies
Breaking down complex information into meaningful units with structure
Mnemonic
Using the first letter of words to help you remember
Testing Effect
Test yourself to find out what you don’t know BEFORE you take the exam
storage
retrieval
getting information out of our memorysystem
What are retrieval cues
Memory is organized in terms of semantic connections / associations between items – each person’s “web” is uniquely organized based on one’s own experience
What are retrieval cues
iation network? x
Context-dependent memory/ Encoding specificity principle
Involves improved recall of specific information whenthe context (i.e., situation) present at encoding andretrieval are the same
]State-dependent memory/ Mood-congruent memory
nvolves improved recall of specific information whenthe context (i.e., situation) present at encoding andretrieval are the samd
Causes of Forgetting
Forgetting has several causes
: Encoding failure Storage decay Retrieval failure Interference Motivated forgetting Memory Construction Amnesia
Encoding failure
memory was never made(it didn’t get into Long-Term Memory) Attention: Failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure Age: Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline
Storage decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay Ebbinghaus showed that forgetting curve is initiallyrapid, and then levels off with time
Retrieval failure
Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay Ebbinghaus showed that forgetting curve is initiallyrapid, and then levels off with time
Proactive interference
Occurs when older memory makes itmore difficult to remember new information
retroactive interference
Occurs when new learning disruptsmemory for older information
motivated forgetting
Attempts to forget are more likely wheninformation is neutral, not emotional.
freud motivated forgetting
Repressed memories protect self-conceptand minimize anxiety
memory construction
Memories are often pieced together from multiple sources
As just mentioned, memories are filtered - things are omitted orlost
Things are also add to make the memory more reasonable oracceptable to ourselves
People are better at recalling information consistent with theircurrent beliefs
misinformation effect
occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information
This happens a lot with eyewitness testimony. People may reconstruct their memories in include details that were “suggested” when questioned about the event
. Unfortunately, eye-witness testimony is given a great deal of weight in court, but it is also very inaccurate
imagination effect
occurs when repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories
source amnesia
involves forgetting how, when, or where information was learned
Loftus and eye witness testimony result
Studies ask participants to view the same accident. A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass?– When researcher said “smashed into” participants reported seeing more broken glass than when said“hit” (people’s memory was altered by terminology!
flashbulb memories
feel like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the gist of the event (rather than contain the details
) Real memories are also more likely to be shared with and supported by others\
A clear and enduring memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Despite being very powerful, flashbulb memories are not always accurate! People can often “re-experience” what it was like when the even occurred…memory brings back tastes/smells/sounds/emotions
amnesia
Failure of memory caused by physical injury ,disease, drug use, or psychological trauma
Two basic forms (although it’s not always this simple)
Retrograde Amnesia
Difficulty retrieving memoriesfrom before trauma
Anterograde Amnesia
Difficulty making memoriessince trauma
