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intro to psych > Chapter 8 psych > Flashcards

Chapter 8 psych Flashcards

1
Q

What is learning?

A

A relatively permanent change in an organism’s knowledge due to experience with new information and behaviors(Relatively permanent, because you can un-learn things)

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2
Q

How do we learn? (associative learning)

A

Through associations – we make connections when things occur together (this is called associative learning

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3
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

learn to associate two stimuli and anticipate significant events

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4
Q

Pavlov (dogs)

A

Ivan Pavlov discovered a basic form of learning in which one stimulus or event predicts the occurrence of another stimulus or event

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5
Q

US

A

unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that automatically elicits an unconditioned response

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6
Q

UR

A

Unconditioned response
an automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus

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7
Q

CS

A

conditioned stimulus
a neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a particular response after being paired with the unconditional stimulus

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8
Q

CR

A

Conditioned response
the response that the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning procedure

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9
Q

How is this related to celebrity endorsements of products

A

Marketers use Classical Conditioning to get you to feelpositively by their products

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10
Q

What are the five major conditioning processes

A

Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Generalization
Discrimination

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11
Q

Acquisition

A

the initial learning stage in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is learned (when pairing is first happening)

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12
Q

Extinction

A

weakening of the conditioned association. Occurs in classical conditioning when the CS is presented without the US.

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13
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

After a rest period, the reappearance of an extinguished CR

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14
Q

Generalization

A

Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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15
Q

Discrimination

A

Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant but related stimuli (which shouldn’t predict US)

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16
Q

How does Little Albert Experiment relate to this

A

Watson used classical conditioning to create fear in a child named Albert. When presented with a lab rat(which Albert liked), Watson would make a loud sound that scared the baby. After a couple of pairings, Albert was scared of the rat, because he came to anticipate the scary sound

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17
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

The process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated

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18
Q

What is the Law of Effect

A

Edward Thorndike this, which stated that responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, while those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur

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19
Q

What researchers are influential to our understanding of operant conditioning

A

B. F. Skinner- SkinnerBox
Edward Thorndike- Law of effect

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20
Q

What are reinforcers?

A

A stimulus that increases the probability that the response will occur again in the future

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21
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

The strengthening of a response through the addition of a stimulus after the response occurs
 Adds something “good” to the situation
 Like praise, treats, or cash

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22
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

The strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs Removes something “bad” from the situation Like when your car stops beeping because you finally put your seatbelt on or your alarm stops sounding because you woke up

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23
Q

What are punishers?

A

A stimulus that decreases the probability that the response will occur again in the future

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24
Q

Positive punisher

A

The weakening of a response through the addition of a negative/aversive stimulus
 Like adding a spanking to discourage bad behavior

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25
Q

Negative Punisher

A

The weakening of a response through the removal of a desirable stimulus
 Using time out (removing the fun/friends/tv/car privileges) to decrease bad behavior

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26
Q

Continuous reinforcement schedule

A

Involves reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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27
Q

Partial Reinforcement schedule

A

Includes schedule reinforcing a response only part of the time

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28
Q

Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement

A

Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement Reinforcement after a set number of responses

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29
Q

Variable-Ratio Reinforcement

A

 Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (like playing slot machines)

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30
Q

Fixed-Interval Reinforcement

A

 Reinforcement after a set time period has elapsed

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31
Q

Variable-Interval Reinforcement

A

 Reinforcement after a random amount of time

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32
Q

Shaping

A

The process of reinforcing responses to gradually guide behavior closer and closer toward a desired response
. Teaching a complex behavior through a series of steps

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33
Q

Observational Learning

A

Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others Interestingly, we can learn by watching others in person or through TV or videos

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34
Q

Bandura

A

Pioneer researcher of observational learning
 Modeling (learning from the behavior of others)
 Bobo doll experiment (1961)

35
Q

Bobo Doll Experiment

A

Individuals learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments
researchers who physically and verbally abused an inflatable doll in front of preschool-age children, which led the children to later mimic the behaviour of the adults by attacking the doll in the same fashion.

36
Q

Modeling

A

(learning from the behavior of others

37
Q

Prosocial modeling

A

nonviolent/pro-social behavior prompts similar behavior in others
Doing good because we see others do good
Across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior Socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong internalized conscience as preschoolers

38
Q

antisocial modeling

A

Modeling nonviolent/pro-social behavior prompts similar behavior in others
 Across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior
 Socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong internalized conscience as preschoolers

39
Q

Who do we model

A

We are particularly likely to imitate people we see as similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable
Really effective models include parents and celebrities

40
Q

What is memory

A

Persistence of learning (remember Chapter 7) overtime through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

41
Q

Sensory Memory

A

First stage in forming explicit memories
 Immediate and quickly fleeting recordings of sensory information in the memory system from all five senses

42
Q

working memory

A

Conscious, actively processed information that can only be held briefly Takes attention to keep from forgetting
 (shining your flashlight on specific information

43
Q

Working memories details

A

Working memory, has a limited capacity (7±2)and a short duration (20 seconds) and thus, at any given moment, we can only consciously process a very limited amount of information
storage capacity- 7 +/- 2 items for about 20 seconds
People can store about seven plus or minus two bits of information in working memory

44
Q

sensory memory details

A

The exact duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses (but in general it is brief)
But when signaled to recall anyone row immediately after the letters had disappeared, they could do so with near-perfect accuracy. This use of PartialRecall showed that the capacity of sensory memory is quite large(even though the duration is very quick)
storage capacity-relatively large, but only for an instant

45
Q

long term memory

A

Person’s total knowledge of the world and of themselves Essentially unlimited storage capacity

46
Q

long term details

A

storage capacity-limitless

47
Q

memory processes

A

Encoding, storage and retrieval

48
Q

Encoding

A

Making a memory

49
Q

Storage

A

Retaining encoded information

50
Q

Retrieval

A

Accessing stored information

51
Q

Automatic encoding

A

Automatic processing and implicit memories
 Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations.
 Information is automatically processed about
 Space Time Frequency

52
Q

Effortful Encoding Strategies

A

Rehearsal,Spacing Effect, Serial Position effect, Semantic Encoding,Chunking, Hierarchies,Mnemonic and testing effect

53
Q

Rehearsal

A

repeated practice leads to encoding– the more times you practice something, the less time it takes to relearn it on subsequent days of practice, Serial Position Effect

54
Q

Spacing Effect

A

distributed practice leads to long term retention better than massed practice(memories are consolidated during sleep…so try to leave time for a nap!)
 Cramming for a test is BAD

55
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

recall is best for the first and last items in a list, whereas recall is poorer for items in the middle of list
t Keep your lists short! (when studying try not to always start at the same place)

56
Q

Semantic Encoding

A

Best method for encoding of information is by its meaning (in terms of definition or its meaning to us personally) makes for “deeper” processing

57
Q

Chunking

A

putting information into meaningful units

58
Q

Hierarchies

A

Breaking down complex information into meaningful units with structure

59
Q

Mnemonic

A

Using the first letter of words to help you remember

60
Q

Testing Effect

A

Test yourself to find out what you don’t know BEFORE you take the exam

61
Q

storage

A
62
Q

retrieval

A

getting information out of our memorysystem

63
Q

What are retrieval cues

A

Memory is organized in terms of semantic connections / associations between items – each person’s “web” is uniquely organized based on one’s own experience

64
Q

What are retrieval cues

A

iation network? x

65
Q

Context-dependent memory/ Encoding specificity principle

A

Involves improved recall of specific information whenthe context (i.e., situation) present at encoding andretrieval are the same

66
Q

]State-dependent memory/ Mood-congruent memory

A

nvolves improved recall of specific information whenthe context (i.e., situation) present at encoding andretrieval are the samd

67
Q

Causes of Forgetting

A

Forgetting has several causes
: Encoding failure Storage decay Retrieval failure Interference Motivated forgetting Memory Construction Amnesia

68
Q

Encoding failure

A

memory was never made(it didn’t get into Long-Term Memory) Attention: Failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failure Age: Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory decline

69
Q

Storage decay

A

Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay Ebbinghaus showed that forgetting curve is initiallyrapid, and then levels off with time

70
Q

Retrieval failure

A

Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay Ebbinghaus showed that forgetting curve is initiallyrapid, and then levels off with time

71
Q

Proactive interference

A

Occurs when older memory makes itmore difficult to remember new information

72
Q

retroactive interference

A

Occurs when new learning disruptsmemory for older information

73
Q

motivated forgetting

A

Attempts to forget are more likely wheninformation is neutral, not emotional.

74
Q

freud motivated forgetting

A

Repressed memories protect self-conceptand minimize anxiety

75
Q

memory construction

A

Memories are often pieced together from multiple sources
 As just mentioned, memories are filtered - things are omitted orlost
 Things are also add to make the memory more reasonable oracceptable to ourselves
 People are better at recalling information consistent with theircurrent beliefs

76
Q

misinformation effect

A

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information
 This happens a lot with eyewitness testimony. People may reconstruct their memories in include details that were “suggested” when questioned about the event
. Unfortunately, eye-witness testimony is given a great deal of weight in court, but it is also very inaccurate

77
Q

imagination effect

A

occurs when repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories

78
Q

source amnesia

A

involves forgetting how, when, or where information was learned

79
Q

Loftus and eye witness testimony result

A

Studies ask participants to view the same accident. A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass?– When researcher said “smashed into” participants reported seeing more broken glass than when said“hit” (people’s memory was altered by terminology!

80
Q

flashbulb memories

A

feel like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the gist of the event (rather than contain the details
) Real memories are also more likely to be shared with and supported by others\
A clear and enduring memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Despite being very powerful, flashbulb memories are not always accurate! People can often “re-experience” what it was like when the even occurred…memory brings back tastes/smells/sounds/emotions

81
Q

amnesia

A

Failure of memory caused by physical injury ,disease, drug use, or psychological trauma
 Two basic forms (although it’s not always this simple)

82
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Difficulty retrieving memoriesfrom before trauma

83
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Difficulty making memoriessince trauma

intro to psych (1 decks)

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