Chapter 8: Memory

Question 1

What is sensory memory and how is it organized?

Answer 1

• Sensory memory = the first stage of memory processing, in which sensory information is held for a short period of time. It helps perceive and understand the environment by temporarily storing sensory information before it’s either discharged or processed further.
• Sensory memory is organized by modality, which means that there are several subsystems that are specialized in storing, encoding and processing specific sensory information.
• E.g., sound is processed in echoic memory, image in iconic memory, etc.

Question 2

What is the working memory?

Answer 2

• Working memory = also called the short-term memory. It’s responsible for the temporal storage and manipulation of information needed for ongoing mental tasks.

Question 3

What is the long-term memory and how is it divided?

Answer 3

• Long-term memory = responsible for the containment of all the information that is stored but not currently active in the working memory.
• The long-term memory can be divided into:
  1. Declarative memory/explicit memory.
  2. Non-declarative memory/implicit memory.

Question 4

What is the declarative memory and in what can it be divided?

Answer 4

• The declarative memory = also called the explicit memory. It consists of all memories that can be consciously recalled and verbalized.
• The declarative memory can be divided into:
  1. Episodic memory.
  2. Semantic memory.

Question 5

What is the episodic memory?

Answer 5

• Episodic memory = personal, autobiographical memory with things/events from our own life.

Question 6

What is the semantic memory?

Answer 6

• Semantic memory = factual memory, i.e., general facts.

Question 7

What is the non-declarative memory and what does it involve?

Answer 7

• The non-declarative memory = consists of memories that cannot be verbalized, but can influence behavior.
• The non-declarative has no generally accepted division, but it usually includes:
• Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
• Skill learning.
• Priming.

Question 8

What is priming?

Answer 8

• Priming = the tendency for an observation to be made more quickly if it repeats what has just been done. In other words, the exposure of a stimulus that facilitates later responses.

Question 9

What does Baddeley’s model of the working memory propose?

Answer 9

• According to Baddeley’s model, the working memory contains multiple components that work together to temporarily store and manipulate information during cognitive tasks.
• These components are:
  1. The central executive.
  2. The phonological loop.
  3. The visual-spatial notepad.
  4. The episodic buffer (that was added later on).
• The model proposes that the components interact with each other and the long-term memory and it highlights the importance of different specialized systems working in concert to support temporary storage, manipulation, and retrieval of information in the mind.

Question 10

What involves the central executive (Baddeley)?

Answer 10

• The central executive = the control center of the working memory.

*It coordinates and regulates cognitive processes, such as attention, task switching, and information retrieval.

*It also allocates (toewijzen) attentional resources to the other components of the working memory.

Question 11

What involves the phonological loop (Baddeley)?

Answer 11

• The phonological loop = deals with auditory and verbal information by constant repetition (silent speech).
• It consists of 2 subsystems:
  1. Phonological buffer = holds auditory information in a speech-based form for a brief period.
  2. Articulatory loop = responsible for the rehearsal and maintenance of verbal information through subvocal articulation (inner speech).
• The phonological loop appears to able to store up to 3 seconds of information, which means that it can remember more short words than long words (which is supported with experiments).

Question 12

What involves the visual-spatial notepad (Baddeley)?

Answer 12

• The visual-spatial notepad = deals with visual and spatial information.
• It allows for the temporary storage and manipulation of mental images, spatial relationships, and visual details.
• It is involved in tasks such as:
• Mental rotation,
• Navigation,
• And visualizing objects or scenes.

Question 13

What involves the episodic buffer (Baddeley)?

Answer 13

• The episodic buffer = serves as a temporary storage system that integrates information from the slave systems (=phonological loop + visual-spatial notepad) and long-term memory.
• It binds together information from different sources into a coherent episode, enabling the formation of integrated and multi-modal representations.
• The episodic buffer was added in te revised model of Baddeley.
• Baddeley also attributes to the buffer an ‘overflow function’ = when too much information needs to be kept active for the phonological loop or the visual-spatial notepad, the episodic buffer can store the excess information.

Question 14

What is chunking and what does it explain?

Answer 14

• Chunking = a cognitive process that involves organizing and grouping information into smaller, meaningful units called ‘chunks’. It allows individuals to manage larger amounts of information by reducing the cognitive load and increasing the capacity of the working memory.
• Chunking explains why the content of the working memory is said to be 7 +/- 2, because according to George Miller’s tests, people can remember 4 chunks of 7 +/- 2.

Question 15

What is some criticism of the working memory model of Baddeley?

Answer 15

• It distinguishes between separate subsystems for different aspects of the working memory.
• This means that it’s not an efficient model in contrast to the model of Cowan, which states that the working memory is nothing more than activated information from the long-term memory on which attention is focused.

Question 16

Why is information storage in the long-term memory not dependent on the working memory?

Answer 16

• Working memory is often seen as a kind of vestibule to long-term declarative memory, because little seems to be stored in te long-term memory without attention.
• However, patients with specific disorders in the working memory suggest that the long-term memory is not dependent on the working memory (because they have a working long-term memory).
• The depth of processing seems to be the most important factor in storage in the long-term memory.

Question 17

What seems to be the best strategy for learning something and what is it called?

Answer 17

• The best strategy for learning something seems to be forming as many conscious associations as possible with what is to be learned.
• This is called elaboration.

Question 18

What are the 3 factors that determine whether information is remembered later?

Answer 18

1. How well information is learned.
2. The retention interval.
3. The type of test.

Question 19

What does the retention interval mean?

Answer 19

• Retention interval = the time between the moment the information is stored and the moment the information is tested.

Question 20

What does retroactive interference mean?

Answer 20

• Retroactive interference = a phenomenon in which new information is learned during the retention interval that disrupts the retrieval of the previous information.

Question 21

What does proactive interference mean?

Answer 21

• Proactive interference = a phenomenon in which old memories that are similar or overlap with new memories interfere the recall of the new memories.

Question 22

What are cues?

Answer 22

• Cues = pieces of information specifically associated with the memory being searched for and used to search the memory.

Question 23

What are ways to test the long-term memory?

Answer 23

1. Free reproduction.
2. Cued reproduction.
3. Recognizing.

Question 24

What does free reproduction mean?

Answer 24

• In free reproduction, information has to be recalled without a cue.

Question 25

What does cued reproduction mean?

Answer 25

• In cued reproduction, a piece of the information (a cue) is given to recall te information.

Question 26

In which 2 ways is recognizing done, and which way is the dominant one?

Answer 26

1. Recollection = we can try to remember how we learned.
2. Familiarity = we can rely on a sense of familiarity. Usually familiarity is the dominant process in recognition, because it’s faster and requires less effort, and we often have a sense of familiarity in things we cannot remember.

Question 27

What is the butcher on the bus phenomenon, and of what is it an example of?

Answer 27

• The butcher on the bus phenomenon = when we see something out of context (the butcher on the bus) we recognize it, but cannot remember it.
• The phenomenon is an example of the sense of familiarity in things we cannot remember.

Question 28

What is the interference theory?

Answer 28

• The interference theory = states that memories become more difficult to access over time, as we form new memories that resemble them. Those new memories then interfere with the old memories.
• So, memories do not disappear, but become unattainable.

Question 29

What is the decay hypothesis?

Answer 29

• The decay hypothesis = states that memories disappear because they fall apart or are overwritten.

Question 30

Why cant the interference theory and the decay hypothesis hardly be tested against each other?

Answer 30

• because a memory can seem forgotten because it has disappeared, but also because the right cues to retrieve it aren’t yet presented.

Question 31

What are the 3 reasons that the boundary between the episodic and semantic memory isn’t easy to indicate?

Answer 31

1. In many retold stories about one’s own life, it’s questionable whether these refer to a vivid memory or have become knowledge about one’s own life.
2. Episodic and semantic factors often appear to determine together what is remembered and what not.
3. Knowledge comes from experience, so each chunk of semantic knowledge probably begins its life as an episodic memory.

Question 32

Of what consists the non-declarative long-term memory?

Answer 32

1. Classical and operant conditioning.
2. Skill learning.
3. Priming.

Question 33

What are similarities between classical and operant conditioning, skill learning and priming?

Answer 33

• They are all inflexible and specific.
• Conditioning and skill learning also seem to be quite insensitive to forgetting.
• Every form of non-declarative long-term memory seems to be retained in case of an amnestic syndrome.

Question 34

What is the prototype non-declarative memory?

Answer 34

• The prototype non-declarative memory = also called the procedural memory and consists of skills. these include motor skills, perceptual skills, and cognitive skills.
• These skills are usually formed after long training sessions, but what exactly has been learned cannot be verified.
• However, this does not mean that the knowledge is necessarily unconscious, and it can be made explicit using multiple choice tests.

Question 35

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 35

• Classical conditioning = learning to generalize an automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus to a neutral stimulus (which ten becomes the conditioned stimulus).
• Classical conditioning is of little importance in practice, but emotional responses can also be classically conditioned.
• Avoidance of fear, or an approach response to an emotional stimulus, often seems to be evoked by classical conditioning. As a result, the emotion that is associated with a memory is sometimes virtually independent of the conscious declarative memory.

Question 36

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 36

• Operant conditioning = consists of learning that certain behavior is rewarded and learning to exhibit that behavior more often.
• Although operant conditioning is often regarded as implicit learning, it seems that the conditioned person can in fact verbalize what they have learned.

Question 37

What is priming?

Answer 37

• Priming = the tendency to repeat what just has been done (or in the case of negative priming, not to repeat it).
• Priming consists of 2 types:
  1. Repetitive priming = the phenomenon that when a stimulus is repeated literally, people respond to it more quickly.
  2. Semantic priming = the phenomenon that people recognize words or pictures faster when a concept that is related to them was presented immediately before.

Question 38

Why is the correlation between subjective memory complaints and objectively determined memory disorders surprisingly low?

Answer 38

1. The face validity of memory problems is high, so they are quickly noticed in daily life.
2. Memory complaints can be the result of a large number of underlying cognitive dysfunctions, such as attention problems, or disorders in executive skills.
3. Various personality factors, mood problems or a lack of motivation may underlie memory complaints, even though they cannot be called a memory disorder.

Question 39

What does amnestic syndrome mean?

Answer 39

• Amnestic syndrome = refers to a very severe memory impairment for newly learned information and knowledge already stored in memory, while there is relative retention of working memory and other cognitive and intellectual functions.

Question 40

Which 2 forms of amnesia can be distinguished and what do they mean?

Answer 40

1. Anterograde amnesia = disorder of conscious storage of information in long-term memory, causing an inability to learn information for a period of time that exceeds working memory. (Aka: new memories can’t be formed)
2. Retrograde amnesia = the loss of memories from before the injury.

Question 41

Where is the cause of amnesia primarily found and which brain structures are involved in this process?

Answer 41

• The cause of amnesia is primarily found in a disturbance in the storage process that occurs shortly after interpretation of information.
• Medial temporal brain structures, especially the hippocampus, are involved in this process.
• In information retrieval, the hippocampal circuit also plays a central role in the reconstruction of the episode and this complicates free reproduction.
• Recognition is less affected in many patient groups, except when the areas adjacent to the hippocampus (parahippocampal gyrus) are damaged.
• Most brain disorders that result in an amnestic syndrome have a common impairment of the medial temporal and/or diencephalon structures.

Question 42

What are causes of memory disorders?

Answer 42

• Korsakoff syndrome.
• Post-traumatic amnesia (PTA).
• Transient global amnesia (TGA).
• Transient epileptic amnesia (TEA).
• Psychogenic amnesia (fugue).

Question 43

What is Korsakoff syndrome?

Answer 43

• Korsakoff syndrome = caused by a thiamine deficiency due to excessive alcohol use, resulting in a variety of other cognitive and behavioral features in addition to the memory impairment.
• Anterograde and retrograde amnesia are very serious in Korsakoff syndrome.
• Retrograde amnesia has a gradual component (= temporal gradient). This is known as Ribot’s law.
• Patients usually have little insight into their disorder and therefore often do not seem to notice their memory problems.

Question 44

What is Ribot’s law?

Answer 44

• Ribot’s law = more recent memories are affected in Korsakoff syndrome and the oldest memories are best preserved.

Question 45

What is post-traumatic amnesia (PTA)?

Answer 45

• PTA = refers ti a transient period in which the patient is disoriented in time, place and person. The duration of this period is indicative of the severity of the brain injury, cognitive recovery and the functional outcome of the patient.

Question 46

What is transient global amnesia (TGA)?

Answer 46

• TGA = a sudden amnestic period, which may last from a few minutes to hours. Patients are often middle aged or older and it affects more men than women.
• In contrast to PTA, there is no traumatic brain injury as a cause, but the etiology is diverse.

Question 47

What is transient epileptic amnesia (TEA)?

Answer 47

• TEA = transient global amnesia in which epilepsy is the cause.

Question 48

What is psychogenetic amnesia (fugue)?

Answer 48

• Fugue = a period of sudden confusion and memory impairment caused by psychological, non-organic factors. It is usually preceded by a prolonged period of high stress and depressed mood.
• Patients with a previously experienced TGA or TEA have an increased risk of psychogenetic amnesia.

Question 49

In which brain regions is the working memory associated?

Answer 49

• Traditionally the working memory is associated with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
• Imaging studies have shown that posterior regions are also involved in working memory.
• It appears as if a perception is kept active in the same place where it has been processed. Representations would then remain active in these sensory areas with the help of the prefrontal cortex.

Question 50

Which 2 brain structures are often affected in patients with amnestic syndrome?

Answer 50

• Either the medial temporal lobe or the diencephalon are affected in patients with amnestic syndrome.

Question 51

What is the role of the frontal lobes in memory?

Answer 51

The frontal lobes are active during recall tasks and serve as an index of mental effort in recall.

Question 52

Which brain areas are involved in memory?

Answer 52

Multiple brain areas are involved, including the frontal cortex, parietal lobe, cerebellum, and sensory cortices.

Question 53

Which brain areas are active during visual memory retrieval?

Answer 53

Brain areas involved in visual perception, such as the primary visual cortex, are active during visual memory retrieval.

Question 54

What can happen to the memory when there is damage to visual areas?

Answer 54

Damage to visual areas can lead to specific difficulties in retrieving visual memories.

Question 55

What is known about the activity of the posterior cingulate cortex and retrosplenial cortex?

Answer 55

They are often active during memory tasks, but the specific circumstances of their activation are not fully established.

Question 56

What is the role of the medial temporal cortex in memory?

Answer 56

The medial temporal cortex is activated during the encoding of new memories, with the hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus being particularly involved.

Question 57

What functions are associated with the hippocampus during memory?

Answer 57

The hippocampus is active during remembering and plays a role in encoding patterns, situations, and free recall.

Question 58

What is the role of the parahippocampal cortex in memory?

Answer 58

The parahippocampal cortex is involved in encoding spatial information.

Question 59

What is the role of the perirhinal cortex in memory?

Answer 59

The perirhinal cortex is involved in encoding objects and object recognition.

Question 60

What is known about the diencephalon’s activation pattern during memory tasks?

Answer 60

The diencephalon does not show a clear activation pattern, but it is known to be important in memory. The anterior thalamic nuclei and mammillary bodies form a functional unit with the hippocampus.

Question 61

How can damage to the diencephalon affect memory?

Answer 61

Damage to the diencephalon can impact the sensitivity of free recall.

Question 62

What brain areas are usually linked to procedural memory and conditioning?

Answer 62

Basal ganglia and cerebellum

Question 63

What brain structure is responsible for emotional reactions and fear conditioning?

Answer 63

Amygdala

Question 64

How does the amygdala contribute to conditioned reactions?

Answer 64

It becomes active when reminded by a stimulus associated with a traumatic situation.

Question 65

What is the interaction between the hippocampus and amygdala in emotional memory?

Answer 65

The hippocampus (memory) and amygdala (emotion) interact to generate emotional responses.

Question 66

What is the general effect of priming on brain activation?

Answer 66

Deactivation of the brain area responsible for underlying processes.

Question 67

Which brain areas are involved in priming effects based on processing type?

Answer 67

• Occipital lobe, posterior temporal and parietal lobes for visual perception.
• Frontal lobe for movement.

*Temporal lobe for language.