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Pschology Final Exam > Chapter 8 Memory > Flashcards

Chapter 8 Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Compare “memory” vs. “a memory”

A

Memory - refers to the structures and processes involved in both storage and retrieval of information
A memory - refers to recollection of a specific event

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2
Q

Define “search metaphor” and provide examples

A
  • most common way to describe the mind
  • a way of describing processes involved in memory using phrases that relate them to looking around in physical/virtual space
  • can be “opened” or “closed”
  • a place that you can be “out of” when feeling strange or disoriented
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3
Q

How does search metaphor contrast with thoughts and memories?

A

Thoughts and memories are actual things of the mind
- they are objects to be held, have texture, and can be looked at

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4
Q

Phrases like “__________” and “__________” both describe the _____ ___________ language that we use when discussing how memory works

A

“bringing it to the front of your mind” and “finding a solution” both describe the “active search-oriented” language

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5
Q

What did Plato and Aristotle describe memory as? What other metaphors were used for memory?

A

a wax tablet, experiences pressed into the tablet create shapes and patterns of writing

Others:
- rooms of a house
- a library
- a purse

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6
Q

Define “failure of search” and its limitations

A

failure of search - inability to remember something
- does not adequately describe many kinds of memory errors

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7
Q

Can search metaphors efficiently explain probelsm with memory?

A

No, it cannot explain why we have trouble remebering things we see often

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8
Q

True or False: Memory is more about the present than the past

A

True

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9
Q

What is a better term for “search metaphor”? Define and explain its significance

A

Reconstruction metaphor - describes how we primarily use memory to put together a useful response, using both what we know and the situation around us

(memory takes info from the environment to help trigger useful memories)

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10
Q

Memory as the combination of both info in environment and what you have stored shows how memory _______

A

forms an adaptive response

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11
Q

encoding

A

the process of how info is initially learned (how our brains commit an event to memory)

-> it is about acquiring info***

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12
Q

encoding problem

A

the problem the brain must solve to encode information (transforming an experience into a memory)

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13
Q

storage

A

the process of maintaining info about an event over time (short or long)

-> it is how info is physically represented in the brain***

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14
Q

storage problem

A

the problem the brain must solve to maintain info in the brain over time

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15
Q

examples of encoding vs. storage

A

encoding - studying for a math test by doing as many different example math problems

storage - studying how the brain represents memories physically

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16
Q

steps of encoding

A
  1. info in the world needs to be translated into the electrochemical language of the brain (through sensation process)
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17
Q

episotic memory + 2 examples

A

the reliving of previous episodes (Blade runner vs. Clive wearing)

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18
Q

List the flow of the various human memory systems and their durations

A
  1. Human Memory (3 categories) -> sensory (< 1 sec), short-term (working, < 1 min), long-term (life-time)
  2. Types of long term memory: Explicit (conscious) and Implicit (unconscious)
  3. Types of explicit: Declarative (facts, events) -> episodic (events) and semantic (facts)
  4. Types of implicit: Procedural (skills, tasks)
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19
Q

Define sensory memory and the following:
1. who studied this?
2. what did the study focus on?
3. what is the importance of sensory memory?

A

Sensory memory - a system that keeps info translated by the senses briefly active in a relatively unaltered, unexamined form

  1. George Sperling (cognitive psychologist)
  2. visual sensory memory (iconic memory)
  3. actively holds on to a limited amt of info so we can manipulate + process it
    - it bridges gap from perception to memory, allowing us to perceive the world as a unified whole rather than a series of staggered images + sounds
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20
Q

This memory system is often a “sensory trace”

A

sensory memory

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21
Q

Explain the 2 types of sensory memory. Explain George Sperling’s relation to this, and examples for each. How long do each last?

A
  1. Iconic - visual form of sensory memory, afterimages on retina
    - icon: is the neuronal activity that loiters in our brain
  • Sperling (1960) only showed blocks of letters for one 20th of a second (50ms), had partial report x3 (what is initially available), and full report (what is available by the end of responding (lasts ~second)
  1. Echoic - auditory form of sensory memory, an echo: lingering neuronal activity in the auditory system
    - reflecting: remembering the last few words of a convo. w/out paying attention
    - e.g. “what? effect”, “5-3-5-7-2-stop” game
  • Iconic lasts 1 second, Echoic lasts 4 seconds
  • Both are brief (a few 10th’s of a second)
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22
Q

Every ____ system contains a _____, something that holds onto ______ info even if it disappears

A

sensory, buffer, sensory

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23
Q

This memory system uses “the conscious mind” to work with and use memory.

A

short-term (working) memory

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24
Q

This memory system is also known as “immediate memory”

A

short-term/working memory

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25
Q

Define working memory and its importance

A

working/short-term/immediate memory: a system that actively holds on to a limited amt of info (at front of mind) to be manipulated and processed
- holds 1st part of sentence while you read the rest
- moment-to-moment thought processes that are guided by immediate memory
- benefit is can keep goals in mind to help navigate the world

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26
Q

limitations to working memory, what is a use for it?

A
  • fairly fragile and capacity limited
  • you are holding on to info rather than actively remembering (it is like RAM in a computer - random access memory)
  • requires a great deal of mental effort to keep things in working memory
  • used for short-term storage, and can be usedfor transferring info to long-term memory
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27
Q

what are the 3 characteristics of immediate memory? Explain each in detail.

A
  1. Representation - info a memory system contains, described in terms of how this info is represented or “coded”
    - most errors in immediate memory are sound-alike errors (b instead of p), though these (auditory) are the primary mode of coding info in immediate memory
  2. Duration - in terms of forgetting, it is how long a memory system can contain info in immediate memory before it is forgotten
    - duration is indefinite w/ rehearsal, 3 seconds w/ out
  3. Capacity - how much info can be held in a memory system at any one time
    - typically considered to be whatever you can rehearse in ~2 seconds
    - Magic number 7: av. person can hold ~7 pieces of info at a time
    - More precisely, 7 +/- 2
    - not the number of items in immediate memory that defines capacity, but simply how long it takes to rehearse info to yourself
    - can improve capacity with chunking
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28
Q

Define “Inner voice”, how do we know it exists?

A
  • an example of representation (in immediate memory)
  • mental experience of hearing yourself talk “in your head”
  • how we know it exists: evidence from immediate recall errors
    (most errors in immediate memory are sound-alike (b instead of p)
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29
Q

Most errors in immediate memory are _______? Primary mode of coding info is _______?

A

sound-alike errors (b instead of p), auditory (sound-alike errors)

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30
Q

Most info we interact with daily usually only need ______ coding, ______ and ______ text are how we consume and produce meaningful info.

A

auditory, speech, writen

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31
Q

Define “inner eye”, how do we know it exists?

A
  • an example of representation (in immediate memory)
  • mental experience of seeing something using imagination
  • used as evidence for visual representation in immediate memory
  • how we know it exists: elephant + goose example, need to mentally “zoom in”
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32
Q

Mental imagery represented by ________ found to use the same brain structures as ______, this indicates they are very similar in general.

A

inner eye, perception

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33
Q

Rehearsal

A
  • the process of repeating info to “re-hear” info over again
  • keeps info active in immediate memory
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34
Q

how was rehearsal used to investigate limits of immediate memory?

A

Lloyd + Margaret Peterson (1959):
- asked participants to remember groups of 3 consonant letters (CWN)
- when rehearsal was interrupted, recall dropped a lot after ~3 seconds
- they prevented rehearsal by telling participants to count backwards from a large number by 3’s
- after 12 seconds, participants could only guess

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35
Q

what is the average person’s memory span?

A

5-9

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36
Q

memory span

A

the number of items that can be kept active in immediate memory at one time

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37
Q

____ of memory is what you can rehearse in ___ seconds

A

capacity, 2

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38
Q

Define chunking, why is it used?

A

a process of arranging info into compact, meaningful “chunks”, so they can be easily rehearsed in immediate memory
- used b/c drawing on knowledge cannot be done when the layout is meaningless or impossible

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39
Q

working memory redux

A
  • relates to questions that are new
  • info is brought together to form an answer to a new question
  • same as working memory model
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40
Q

working memory model

A
  • AKA conscious awareness
  • a model of immediate memory that emphasizes its role for manipulating info in consciousness
  • immediate memory is NOT for just storage, therefore it is called WORKING memory, not short-term/immediate
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41
Q

when you think about things, it is our _____ memory.

A

working

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42
Q

define the 2 places that information exists in working memory

A
  1. Phonological loop - system in working memory that temporarily stores + manipulates auditory and verbal info
    it is the manifestation of the inner voice
  2. Visuopatial sketch pad - system in working memory where visual and spatial info is stored + manipulated
    it is the representation of the inner eye model
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43
Q

central executive

A
  • structures and controls processes
  • hypothetical portion of working memory model, that directs activities of working memory (phonological loop + sketch pad)
  • also directs flow of info b/w working memory <—> long-term memory
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44
Q

encoding

A
  • associates new info what what we have (bed, followed by breakfast, followed by dog walk, ironing clothes, shower, dress, etc.)
  • making memories requires work(ing memory)
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45
Q

strong memory is not about ____, it is about ____,_____, and “____ coding”.

A

size, organization, connections (each becomes a memory cue), dual coding (concept maps)

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46
Q

enhancing transfer

A
  • transfer appropriate processing and state dependent memory
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47
Q

retrieval

A
  • the testing effect
  • role of retrieval practice and how it enhances memory
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48
Q

retrieval practice significance in relation to brain anatomy

A

HERA - hemispheric encoding / retrieval asymmetry

  1. Left prefrontal cortex:
    - encodes info into EPISODIC memory
    - semantic memory retrieval (b/c episodic encoding usually involves semantic memory retrieval)
    - words
  2. Right prefrontal cortex:
    - episodic memory retrieval
    - unfamiliar faces
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49
Q

best study methods in order, what is the most effective?

A
  1. Retrieval practice: combined 2 study sessions with retrieval practice
  2. Repeated study
  3. Concept mapping
  4. One study session

Thus, it is better to study followed by practice, rather than study then more studying

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50
Q

What factor helps with memory retrieval (for example, recalling info during a test)?

A

context
- e.g. if you learn something in a happy mood, take the test with a happy mood

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51
Q

state-dependent memory

A

“emotional” states
- it is an internal context

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52
Q

the closer the ____ and ____ contexts match, the better will be the transfer of memory

A

study and test/exam contexts

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53
Q

transfer appropriate processing

A
  • internal context
  • engaging in similar processes at both encoding and retrieval
  • tends to enhance recall on a final test (e.g. multiple choice test - discriminate terms in a list, etc.)
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54
Q

input for perception

A

sensory systems (the world)

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55
Q

input for memory

A

long-term memory

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56
Q

compare the 4 brain lobes in their roles for using input + perception to plan and guide actions

A

Frontal lobe - combines perceptions of the world w/ goals and intentions
Parietal, Temporal, Occipital lobes - get input from the world (sensory system + long-term memory)

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57
Q

uncertainty

A
  • brain assumes or ignores info in ways that allow it to “make sense”
  • relies heavily on past experiences to decide what “makes sense”
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58
Q

2 parts of memory

A
  1. Familiarity
  2. Recollection (brain has figured it out)
  • these 2 are an example of trying to recognize someone you know*
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59
Q

How is memory reconstructive?

A

there are certain aspects of an experience that we deeply encode in the brain, but when we try to remember, our brain adds things that may not be there
- every time we relive something in our mind, we are recreating and storing info

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60
Q

perceptual fluency

A

a type of implicit memory that brings familiarity (b/c brain does not like feeling uncertain)

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61
Q

long-term memory, and when is it used?

A

memory systems used to store and recall info over extended periods of time
- used whenever you are cued to remember info that was previously encoded
- many psychologists believe it is limitless in total storage capacity

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62
Q

types of long-term memory

A
  1. Episodic memories: recall what happened
    - memories that pertain to specific events (“episodes”)
    - they are autobiographical memories based on specific events that you experienced and coded
    - explicit/declarative
  2. Semantic memories: recall what something is
    - memories whose contents relate to specific facts and pieces of meaningful info NOT based on personal experience
    - relate to meaning without specific context
    - useful for language by recognizing patterns of letters that have meaning
    - useful for general knowledge, like fire is hot and sharp things are dangerous
    - explicit/declarative
  3. Procedural memories: recall how a process of a task is completed
    - memories whose contents pertain to how something is done (e.g. motor skills for walking or riding a bike)
    - people are often good at recalling procedural memories, but have poor insight into the contents (hard to explain how to tie a shoe)
    - resistant to amnesia, suggesting that it operates on a different level than episodic/semantic memory
    - implicit
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63
Q

how can long-term memory be created?

A

elaborative rehearsal, specifically the 4 types of elaboration (imagery, relating info to yourself, organizing info, processing info distinctively)

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64
Q

elaborative rehearsal and its significance

A

process of actively manipulating info in immediate memory to meaningfully connect it to other info that is already stored (in long-term memory)
- it is the solution to the encoding problem
- “levels of processing experiment”: demonstrates effectiveness of elaborative rehearsal

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65
Q

2 types of processing, which helps remember more information?

A

deep processing - encoding new info through meaningful connections to existing knowledge
- encodes info semantically (based on meaning)

shallow processing - encoding info based on surface characteristics

*Deep processing is more helpful (Craik + Tulvig experiment)

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66
Q

4 effective encoding strategies

A
  1. spacing/spacing effect: observation that learning is most effective when repeated exposure to material occurs over a longer time frame
    - massed practice (cramming): repeated exposure to info over short time periods, w/ out gaps (less learning occurs during 5th/6th repetition compared to 1st/2nd)
  2. mmemonics: improve memory by providing framework for encoding + recall
  3. engage processes that fit naturally w/ brain structure: thinking functionally about memory
    - adaptive memory
    - strategy to remember ordered info (PAO)
  4. retrieval (retrieval practice/”testing effect”): phenomenon that repeated retrieval of info is more useful for long-term memory than other tasks
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67
Q

Examples of mmemonics

A

ex 1: peg-word technique: provides both order + imagery to a list of items, relating to a rhyme (“1 is a bun, 2 is a shoe”)

ex 2: method of loci (“places”): a person places info along well-known pathway (way to school or work)
- route provides structure for info, while imagining the route and contents gives meaningful imagery
- used in ancient Rome + Greece to remember oral histories, stories, and speeches

ex 3: phrases, acronyms, and initializations: provides cues to info’s organizational structure (ROY G. BIV)

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68
Q

adaptive memory

A

focuses on how the brain is designed to learn and remember, from an evolutionary standpoint
- found that info processed that is relevant to survival leads to high levels of recall (due to enhanced levels of elaboration)
- certain types of info favoured (living things are more memorable than thoughts + places)

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69
Q

strategy to remember ordered info

A

PAO (person-action-object): unique image placed in memory palaced after PAO
- single image is then unpacked into its PAO parts

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70
Q

How is PAO related to adaptive memory?

A
  • it is indirect, people are integrated into the memories (animate concepts well remembered)
  • humerous or gross imagery do this as well
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71
Q

retrieval problem

A

brain must solve this to recover info from long-term memory
- retrieval is LESS like picking out a book, and MORE like putting dinosaur skeleton together

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72
Q

define cues, what is a powerful example?

A

pieces of present info that help us remember past events
- central for remembering
- can be specific or broad (smell of soup reminds you of home)

powerful example: Tulving and Pearlstone study (1966)
- asked participants to remember a list of words w/ or w/ out cues (category name is a cue - animals, fruit, etc.)

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73
Q

free recall vs. cued recall

A

free recall - remembering previously learned info without context to aid in remembering

cued recall - remembering previously learned info with aid of clues/info to provide context

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74
Q

what is the reason elaboration works so well? give an example.

A

cues help improve memory, e.g. dinosaur skeleton metaphor: cues are shapes and sizes of a bone that a scientist is studying

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75
Q

encoding specificity principle

A
  • aka encoding-retrieval match
  • idea that retrieval cues are only useful if they match the original context of how specific info was originally learned/encoded
  • e.g. words with multiple meanings
  • e.g. influences on memory: location, mood, mental state
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76
Q

explicit vs. implicit memory

A

explicit - recalling info that occurs consciously and with intent

implicit - remembering that occurs without conscious realization or intent

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77
Q

how was implicit memory presence measured?

A

Roediger test - memory tests that are not known to be memory tests to participants
- made sure 40% of word stems were from initial phase of experiment

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78
Q

elaborate encoding strategies facilitate _____ memory, but have no effect on _____ memory

A

explicit, implicit (e.g. word stem completion does not change)

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79
Q

2 categories for the Schacter’s 7 sins of memory

A

errors of omission: info cannot be brought to mind

errors of comission: wrong or unwanted info

80
Q

Schacter’s view on memory

A

he still believed that memory is an adaptive constructive process

81
Q

3 errors of omission

A
  1. Transience: unable to retrieve info b/c has been forgotten due to interference of info we have processed
    - during error of transience, we can’t remember info we try to recall
    - conflicting memories (interference) is often the cause of forgetting and lead to transience
  2. Sin of absent-mindedness: memories sometimes unavailable b/c of failure to encode them (lack of attention, failure to rehearse info, like misplacing your keys)
  3. Blocking: not enough distinctive cues available to recover specific memories (does not effectively reinstate original encoding conditions)
    **Important example - TOT (tip-of-tongue) state: cannot remember info but have powerful feeling they do know
82
Q

forgetfulness vs. decay

A

forgetting - information degrades over time

decay - memories fade away due to passage of time
- (but cannot explain majority of forgetting, e.g. mountain erosion relies on water, temp, etc. not just time)

83
Q

most common cause of forgetfulness + transience

A

lacking appropriate cues to aid recall, and interferences

84
Q

2 types of interference

A
  1. retroactive - inability to retrieve older info due to influence of new, similar info
  2. proactive - inability to retrieve info due to influence of older, similar info (e.g. parking car in same spot every day, but when changing the old info interferes w/ action)
85
Q

Is interference the cause of inability to recall info?

A

No, the problem lies at encoding (elaborating info in the first place)

86
Q

how long does TOT take to resolve?

A

a few minutes, usually when a difference, more useful cue enables you to recall info

87
Q

3 errors of commission

A
  1. Sin of misattribution - incorrectly recall source of info
    examples:
    ex 1: deja vu - french for “already seen”, feeling we already experienced a sequence of events
    - we cannot remember source, rather than misattribution of it
    - Brown and Marsh induced deja vu by using symbols subliminally (below awareness), 50% reported experienced deja vu when shown symbols again

ex 2: flashbulb memories - details surrounding surprising/signifcant events (9/11, trump winning)
- have rich, elaborate stories of what we were doing when we heard the news

  1. Suggestibility - memories can be altered by context in which they are remembered to fit current context
    - affected by outside source suggestions
    - “which hand was robber holding his gun in?”: assumes man and gun there
    - this is the MISINFORMATION EFFECT
    - loftus experiment showed red car w/ red stop sign and yield sign, participants were asking misinformed question
    - suggestibility can implant autobiographical memories (lost mall study - Loftus)
    - b/c memory is reconstructive
  2. Bias - memories can change as a result of influence of knowledge and beliefs
    - we are biased by schemas
  3. Persistence - less common, occur when memory system fails to prevent memory recall that is unwanted (negative or traumatic)
    - PTSD
    - memories come back w/ out warning
88
Q

are flashbulb memories susceptible to errors?

A

Yes- susceptible to errors, Neisser and Harsh Challenger study proved that they are not as elaborately encoded as they are provided w/ emotion

89
Q

example of simple source error

A

deja vu

90
Q

misinformation effect

A

phenomenon in which misleading info alters subsequent memory
- to prevent suggestibility, questioners can ask neutrally worded questions w/ out assumptions about what happened

91
Q

memory schemas

A
  • most common type of bias
  • highly organized sets of facts/knowledge about various info
  • allow us to remember new info by fitting it into a set of already highly organized knowledge set
  • e.g. chess schema (chunking), facts about dogs, actions/routines common in certain situations (classrooms or restaurants)
  • schemas act as organizing principles for info, fill gaps in memories
92
Q

problem with schemas

A

info can become overgeneralized, or exceptions to schemas unnoticed (sin of BIAS has occurred)

93
Q

hyperthymesia

A

rare medical condition that leads to near perfect autobiographical recall (Jill Price/AJ)
- fMRI found right half of her amgydala was 20% larger than most adults
- her amgydala contained many more connections to hippocampus

94
Q

amygdala and memory

A

portion of brain responsible for processing emotion
- all info passes through amygdala and looks for threats

95
Q

hippocampus and memory

A

area of brain known for its critical role in formation of memories in general, helps transfer to long-term memory

96
Q

Amnesia

A

Memory loss due to physical damage or problems in the brain

97
Q

2 types of amnesia

A
  1. Retrograde - loss of memories prior to traumatic event such as blow to the head or certain other conditions
    - some events prior to incident are lost, typically temporarily, but can be more severe up to years of memory loss
  2. Anterograde - inability to encode new info into long-term memory
    - cannot make new memories
    - only develops as a result of specific brain damage to hippocampus
    - can occur by viral infection, chronic alcohol abuse over many years (Korsakoff syndrome), or brain surgery consequences (H.M.)
    - often people with this amnesia have retrograde as well
98
Q

Why did H.M. have his hippocampus removed?

A

Seizures (epilepsy)

99
Q

How long could H.M. remember a number if constantly repeated?

A

15 minutes

100
Q

What distinction between 2 things was supported by evidence from H.M.?

A
  1. Immediate and Long-term memory
    - he could rehearse info and interact with people (immediate), but could not make long term memories
  2. Procedural and Semantic memory
    - he could still learn to perform tasks (procedural) but could not learn new ones (semantic)
101
Q

DRM Task

A

Deese, Roediger, McDermott
- they tried to manipulate encoding and retrieval, by making predictions about the results that will be seen based on different processing strategies

102
Q

What are the 2 important findings from Broca’s discovery?

A
  1. There may be a module in the brain controlling speech
  2. Language production is predominantly controlled by the left hemisphere, which helped explain hemispheric lateralization
103
Q

Define hemispheric lateralization, provide examples

A

Certain functions such as language, are more dominantly controlled by one hemisphere of the brain compared to the other
- e.g. left lobe of birds allow them to make recognizable birdsong
- e.g. macaque monkeys show left hemisphere dominance in detections species-specific calls
- e.g. other primates possess anatomy to make human speech, but cannot verbally bc have not developed Broca’s area like us
- e.g. other non-human animals have not developed version of a gene called FOXP2 that humans have (shows improved performance in tasks similar to reiterating language)

104
Q

Frontal lobe vs. Limbic system

A

Frontal lobe - home of rational thought (logical, consciousness)

Limbic system - more powerful, home of emotion, instinct, and habit (operant conditioning creates habits)

105
Q

Traditional media vs. Social media

A

Traditional - reputation based (fact checked)
Social - no accuracy checks and therefore wild west (rational thought is repressed and our instinct tells us to do something, like and share)

106
Q

2 types of persuasion that advertisers use

A

Central route (PSAs) - highly motivated to think, deep processing, focuses on quality of message (outcome - lasting change that resists fading and counterattacks)

Peripheral route (half watching) - low motivation to think, superficial processing, focus on surface features (attractiveness of speaker), (outcome - low motivation to think about message)
ad will be light-hearted bc you are more driven by emotion

107
Q

Classical conditioning

A
  • used in peripheral persuasion
  • associating product/message (CR) with attractive people, places, or situations (UCS) that generate positive reactions (UCR)
  • e.g. fear, humour
  • already liked celebrities, and already trusted experts are used
108
Q

Positive and negative of emotional manipulation, solution?

A

Easy, but short-term change
- to have long-term impacts, critical thinking and communication is used to help society evolve

109
Q

2 learning mechanisms

A
  1. Observational learning (Albert Bandura) - we mimic what we see (instinctual)
    - “mirror cells” support this mimicry even when we aren’t doing it “on purpose”
  2. Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner) - rewards and punishment shape behaviour (no rational thought)
110
Q

____ then _____ change

A

Cognitive, behaviour

111
Q

Language and examples

A

The grouping of spoken, written, or gestured symbols used to convey info

(> 60,000 words understood after high school)

  • koshik speaks up to 7 Korean words
112
Q

Why cannot Koshik the Elephant use language the same way as humans?

A

He lacks productivity: the creation of new messages

113
Q

Species-specific vs. Species-universal

A

Specific - only humans acquire language in normal course of development

Universal - language learning achieved by developing infants across the globe (all cultures)

114
Q

Language in human vs. non-human animals

A

Non-humans cannot use grammar (no new sentences)

115
Q

2 social-cognitive functions of symbols

A
  1. Communication
  2. Representation (time, language, thought, etc.)
116
Q

semantic

A

meaning of a word

117
Q

mental lexicon

A

storage of words and related concepts
- can be accessed to recognize a word within 80 milliseconds

118
Q

average number of word productions

A

2-4 per second, and retrieve them from 50, 000 to 100, 000 words

119
Q

the language hierarchy and examples of each

A
  1. Phonemes: smallest units of sound (sounds, individual letters)
  2. Morphemes: smallest unit of meaning/language comprehension (a single word, prefixes)
    -> the word is then linked to info that is semantically similar
  3. Syntax: rules in a language that specify how words can be combined (nouns, verbs, adjectives)
  4. Generativity: use of finite set of words/phonemes in all languages, we can put together an infinite number of sentences and ideas
120
Q

what type of learning is grammar?

A

implicit learning (not knowing you learned it)

121
Q

How should things be categorized? How not?

A

Good -> Family resemblence: classify broadly based on similarity to other members
Bad -> item-by-item comparison: inefficient

122
Q

prototype

A

the most common/typical form a word assumes when we imagine it
-> the closer a member is to a category, the easier to classify (atypical members are less common)

123
Q

when do the sensory system and basic auditory recognition develop?

A

prenatally

124
Q

differences in children’s language acquisition

A

2-7 year old females outperform on tasks of comprehension and sentence complexity (minor difference and goes away w/ age)

125
Q

what is early signs of language progression a sign of?

A

indicators of a child’s well-being, comfort, and developmental trajectory

126
Q

critical vs. sensitive period for language

A

a theoretical stage of development when it is necessary to recieve environmental stimulation, to promote healthy development (this is the range of early development)

  • critical: required at that time
  • sensitive: neruological system is more malleable during early development, but is still changeable later in life, with proper environmental stimulation
127
Q

why is the critical/sensitive period important? Provide an example.

A

ensures children fully develop language skills (e.g. children should be exposed to auditory info during this period)

128
Q

how long does the critical/sensitive period last?

A

6 weeks to age 5, then slowly declines up until puberty

129
Q

language acquisition hypothesis

A

“Less-is-more” hypothesis: perceptual and memory limitations cause babies and young children to extract/store smaller chunks of language compared to adults
(e.g. morphemes are small)

130
Q

Nurture

A
  • environmental influences dictate language development
  • speech defined as verbal behaviour (operant conditioning to children’s language acquisition)
  • argues that children gesture/utter phrases if reinfored
  • tones impact behaviour ( <5 months old)
131
Q

examples of nurture

A
  • fragmented speech patterns facilitate word recognition processing in 18 months old
  • parental involvement alter neural activity in babies (5-8 months old)
132
Q

problem with nurture

A

cannot explain rapid development of human language in early childhood

133
Q

Nature

A
  • biological constraints on development
  • argues that tendency of gestures represents a natural bias for language development
  • genetics factor behavior
  • emphasizes nativism
  • LAD
  • Duolingo + Rosetta Stone
  • SOV/SVO (subject-object-verb)
  • SOV used in deaf Chinese, English, and Arabic
134
Q

Emergentist

A

bridges gap between nativist + behavioral approaches

135
Q

grammar in children with born-deafness

A

2 1/2 - 4 years made simple, 2-part sentences of the same grammatical structure

136
Q

Nativism

A

belief that certain abilities are built into our brains

137
Q

LAD

A

Language acquisition device - hypothetical mechanism in brain responsible for faculty of language

138
Q

motherese

A

infant-directed speech, emotional exaggeration and tone to help infant learn words, meaning, and intonation

139
Q

language and pitch in the hemisphere

A

language - left
pitch - right

140
Q

paraphasia

A

switch out words for other ones, or if they sound similar (dog for cat, house for horse)

141
Q

Broca’s area

A

region in low frontal lobe that contributes to motor production of speech

  • for naming objects and coordinating face muscles
142
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

aka non-fluent aphasia, inability to produce speech, hesitating, etc.
- damage to frontal lobe

143
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

region in temporal lobe (near auditory cortex)

  • contributes to meaning of language
144
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

aka fluent aphasia, speech memory is impaired (speech makes no sense)
- speech is effortless, but meaning is impaired (HEOSR instead of horse)
- caused from a stroke
- difficulty understanding written + spoken language
- damage to temporal lobe

145
Q

define prosody and relation to aphasia

A

speech patterns/melody of speech (prosody of Wernicke’s aphasia is intact)

146
Q

rate of language acquisition of children

A

slow until 7-12 months old, absorbs words fast until age 5

147
Q

route of auditory info

A
  1. processed by auditory cortex
  2. sent to wernicke’s area to be processed for meaning
  3. wernicke’s area sends intended message to broca’s area
  4. broca’s area assists in motor output and production
148
Q

receptive vs expressive aphasia

A

fluent = receptive
non-fluent = expressive

149
Q

motor cortex

A

controls movement on both sides of brain (connected to language)

150
Q

define PPA and how it can be improved

A

Primary progressive aphasia - most caused by stroke/brain injury
- form of dementia
- 1st symptom is language loss
- improved by maintaining language function (speech therapy)

151
Q

brain plasticity

A

ability for brain to repair itself
- areas near lesions can take over functions during recovery
- speech therapy

152
Q

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A
  • this is linguistic relativity (e.g. color naming)
  • structure of a language influences perception of an experience
153
Q

how can structural differences in language be mimicked?

A

in thought patterns, influencing attention, memory, and reasoning

154
Q

production

A

speaking/writing to others

155
Q

steps to prepare for production

A
  1. limited sounds (birth to 6-8 weeks)
    - crying, sneeze, sigh, burp, smack their lips
    - vocal tract not developed enough to make speech
  2. vocal gymnastics and imitation (6-8 weeks to 6 months)
    - “coo” “ahh”, blow raspberries, squeal, crying expressively
    - practicing to gain motor contral over vocalization
    - aware of responses from others
    - imitate sounds
  3. babbling (6-10 months)
    - babbling: repetitive consonant-vowel sequences (bababa)
  4. communicating intentionally (10 months and beyond)
    - learn to alternate between active and passive role (peekaboo, communic. back and forth)
156
Q

Tonal vs. Intonation language

A

tonal - like mandarin, relies on pitch change for meaning (“Ma” = mother, hemp, hprse)

intonation - like english, use pitch to convey feeling

children w tonal become skilled at pitch diff. and more likely to have perfect pitch

157
Q

when does early word recognition occcur?

A

begins at 6 months

158
Q

when does early word production occur?

A

begins at 10 months
- productive vocab: words a child can say
- this consists of names, objects, and events

159
Q

developmental language disorders

A
  1. Late talkers - vocab development in toddlers below 10th percentile (go on to have near-normal language skills)
  2. Specific language impairment (SLI) - children that have challenges in language tasks (speech perception, word segmentation, grammar meaning)
  3. Down syndrome, fragile-X syndrome, autism spectrum disorder: signifcantly delayed across all aspects of language development
160
Q

deaf children

A
  • can learn spoken language w/ hearing aid
  • depends on critcal period
  • recieve cochlear implant by age 2: able to progress language
  • recieve cochlear implant after age 2: do not perform as well on tests of language (can still process auditory sounds)
161
Q

what processes can be done without language?

A

experiencing, feeling, and thinking

162
Q

what are human’s defining feature?

A

the ability to form language + communicate with each other

163
Q

why is language unique to humans?

A

complexity (stories), and generativity (symbols)

164
Q

are nature and nurture universal?

A

nature yes, nurture no

165
Q

when does narrowing of perception occur?

A

3 months, at 3-4 months can connect speech sounds w/ objects

166
Q

what happens at 8 months and greater?

A

babies show declined ability to distinguish between sounds not common to their native language

167
Q

what is an important aspect of problem solving?

A

The approach

168
Q

define mental set and its problem

A

a person’s expectation of how to solve a problem (from prior interactions, creates a set effect/fixation)
- problem: limits application of new solutions

169
Q

functional fixedness

A

tendency to view objects as only having 1 function, ignoring other possible uses

170
Q

define algorithm and how it assists AI

A

precise set of rules applied to solve a problem
- trial and error
- early AI used brute force (exhausting, inefficient)
- AI now use modern algorithms, assigning different values to pieces of info

171
Q

“right direction”

A

anywhere closer to solution

172
Q

Kirk vs Spock

A

Kirk - emotional
Spock - logical, non-emotional
- these are system 1 and 2 in textbook

173
Q

Daniel Kahneman

A

Created thinking fast (system 1) and slow (system 2)
- won nobel prize

174
Q

heuristics

A

(system 1)
- quick rules with sort cuts (non-rational) to solve problems
**used for frequencies and probabilities*

175
Q

means-end heuristic

A

problem solve strategy to take whatever measures necessary to attain goal

176
Q

problem with means-end heurstic

A

user too focused about this, prevents them from making progress (hobbit and orc example)

177
Q

define production systems and how it advanced heuristics in AI

A
  • applies complex and comparative systems of rules
  • helped AI by using a new, fluid storage of memory that more closely mimicked humans
178
Q

how is heuristics biasing your decisions?

A

Daniel said, when we estimate the probability of something (dying froma dog or furniture), we look at how available the info about something is
- use ease of info as a proxy

179
Q

Availability vs. Representative heuristic

A

availability - frequency of memories available (google, dying from a dog or plane)

representative - prototype of an event, object, or person (typical enginners, lawyers, etc.)
- ignores probabilities and facts

180
Q

base-rate information

A

statistics that change opinions/decisions (representative heuristic)

181
Q

perceptual biases

A
  1. expectations (percieve what we expect)
  2. resistance (perception resist change even w/ new evidence)
  3. ambiguities (initial exposure interferes with accurate perception, even after more info is available)
182
Q

bias in evaluating evidence

A
  1. consistency (draw conclusions from small trusted data)
  2. missing info
  3. discredited evidence (evidence may be proved wrong, perception may not quickly change)
183
Q

bias in estimating probabilities

A
  1. availability (how much you can recall an event or similar instances)
  2. anchoring (put high price first in bidding, probability changes w/ new info/analysis)
  3. overconfidence (overconfident, especially w/ expertise)
184
Q

bias in perceiving causality

A
  • cause and effect
  1. rationality (events seen as orderly pattern, randomness, accident, and error are rejected as explanations for observed events)
  2. attribution (behavior of others attributed to some fixed nature of the person/country, our own behavior attributed to situations we find ourselves in)
185
Q

is critical thought unnatural?

A

yes, must practice and excercise these thoughts (observational and operant learning)

186
Q

asbtract vs. concrete logic

A

we want to prove a rule is correct
- abstract is hard to handle than concrete

187
Q

confirmation bias

A
  • heuristics at risk of this
  • once you believe something, you only focus on info that aligns with these beliefs
188
Q

biases similar to confirmation bias

A
  1. relying on logic/reasoning only (probability of an event)
  2. framing - how an option is presented/questioned
189
Q

language development in:
1. 2-3 years old
2. 4-5 years old
3. 10+ years old

A
  1. can match objects to names, full 2-4 word sentences, can follow instructions
  2. can use simple grammar, memorize and recite songs, speech becomes clear, can tell short stories
  3. can speak language easily, and store 50 - 100,000 words
190
Q

steps of the creative process

A
  1. preparation - gather knowledge on specific aspects of task
  2. incubation - info sit back of mind (sleeping)
  3. illumination - slight pre-awareness, but often a surprise (eureka moment)
  4. evaluate - assess if idea is creative and worthy solution
191
Q

you incubate ideas while you sleep?

A

yes, in an expt. participants solved 11.2% more problems during sleep than those who did not

192
Q

dual process of decision making and examples, which is better?

A

system 1 thinking - relies on emotional systems and stored experiences, using intuition (e.g. lottery choices)

system 2 thinking - relies on logical, rational thinking
- language and cognitive representations help us slow down and use this

  • none are better or worse, they just rely on diff. info and processes *
193
Q

awake vs. sleep incubation

A

awake - performed better on easy tests
sleep - performed better on difficult tests

194
Q

list types of elaboration and their problems

A
  1. Imagery - is not an exact representation of an object in the real world (more abstract) -> apple logo example
  2. Organization - remebering info using categories leads to mistakes within it (may accidentally remember “coffee” for original word “tea”
  3. Distinctiveness - time consuming, can make it difficult to remember large amts of info (e.g. a cup of green tea near teapot w/ string, instead of coffee)
  4. Self-reference - effective for elaboration , but difficult for detailed material (physics test)
    - easier for people in indvidualistic societies like the U.S., not china or Japan
195
Q

what are the best 2 types of elaboration to be used together?

A

organization and distinctiveness

Pschology Final Exam (1 decks)

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