Chapter 8 - Germany's international position 1924-28

Question 1

The international position of Germany in 1923

Answer 1

• Germany was limited to 100,000 troops
• They had no air force
• Germany was extremely unhappy that Alsace-Lorraine had been taken away from Germany and given to France
• Germany was excluded from the League of Nations
• Germany was made to take responsibility for WW1 (war guilt)
• Anschluss (the union of Germany and Austria) was desired to be created in order to make Germany more powerful. However, the allies banned them from doing so

Question 2

Gustav Stresemann and the policy of fulfilment

Answer 2

• Germans of all classes and political allegiances agreed on one thing after 1919: that the Treaty of Versailles was na unjust and dictated peace treaty, which denied Germany its rightful place among the great powers of Europe
• It also placed millions of Germans outside the territory of the Republic
• Whichever government was in power during the years 1919-1933, the foreign policy of the Weimar Republic was always based on one clear and simple aim: to revise the terms of the Treaty of Versailles
• There were, however, deep divisions between the parties on how this aim should be achieved
• The nationalist right consistently argued that Germany should reject the treaty and rebuild its military strength in preparation for a time when the country could regain lost territory and become a fully independent great power once again
• A more pragmatic (sensible and realistic) approach, which came to be associated with Gustav Stresemann, was the policy of fulfilment
• The policy of fulfilment involved Germany cooperating with France, Great Britain, the USA and Italy on issues such as reparations payments and removing allied occupation forces from German territory
• It was believed that this cooperation would lead to more revision of the treaty than a confrontational approach
• Gustav Stresemann was foreign minister from 1923 to 1929
• Stresemann was responsible for bringing hyperinflation under control, ending the policy of passive resistance to the French occupation of the Ruhr and cooperating with the allies over the Dawes Plan
• As a result, French and Belgian troops left the Ruhr in 1925
• Stresemann understood that French suspicion of Germany was the biggest obstacle in the way of securing revisions in the Treaty of Versailles and, therefore, he concentrated on finding ways to reassure France of Germany’s peaceful intentions
• This policy successfully resulted in the Locarno Pact of 1925

Question 3

The Locarno Pact, 1925

Answer 3

• In October 1925, the western European powers met, due to Germany’s suggestion, at a conference in the Swiss city of Locarno
• Stresemann was anxious to restore Germany’s position internationally and avoid any hostile alliance between France and Britain, particularly as France began to feel threatened by Germany’s industrial recovery
• France was initially suspicious of the move but eventually agreed to attend, along with the USA, Britain and Italy, but not Russia
• The discussions led to the Rhineland Pact and Arbitration Treaties, which are collectively known as the Locarno Pact, although they were finally signed in London on 1st December 1925
• Under the Rhineland Pact:
  • Germany, France, and Belgium promised to respect the western frontier, which was drawn up at Versailles in 1919. This frontier was to be regarded as fixed and internationally guaranteed
  • Germany agreed to keep its troops out of the Rhineland, as demanded at Versailles
  • Britain and Italy promised to aid Germany, France, or Belgium if any of these countries were attacked by their neighbours
• Under the Arbitration Treaties:
  • Germany agreed with France, Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia that any dispute between them should be settled by a conciliation committee to mediate discussions
  • France signed treaties of “mutual guarantee” with Poland and Czechoslovakia which said that France would make sure Germany did not break the other agreement in the Arbitration treaties
• It was also agreed that any conflicts regarding the western border should be referred to the League of Nations
• In addition, France would not be permitted to cross into Germany should there be any dispute between Germany and Poland or Czechoslovakia

Question 4

Effects of the Locarno Pact

Answer 4

• The Locarno pact was hailed as a major triumph by many people
• It meant that the 1923 occupation of the Ruhr could never be repeated and any conflicting surrounding the western borders had to be taken to the league of nations, which are both massively beneficial to Germany
• It was the first time that Germany had recognised the western border imposed at Versailles and accepted the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to France and Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium
• For the French, there was a guarantee of support from the British should there ever be another German attack
• For the Germans, it meant the 1923 occupation of the Ruhr could never be repeated
• The French agreed to withdraw the forces occupying the Rhineland and, although this was initially postponed in January 1925 because of Germany’s refusal to comply with the disarmament obligations imposed at Versailles, it was achieved over the next 5 years, even without Stresemann giving any assurances that Germany would disarm
• The city of Cologne, for example, was evacuated by the French in 1926
• However, although the Arbitration treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia offered some guarantees, the eastern borders were not recognised in the same way
• For Germany, this left open the possibility of further revision of the eastern borders at some stage in the future
• Stresemann recognised the Locarno Pact as his greatest achievement
• Germany’s acceptance into the League of Nations as a permanent member of the council led to Stresemann receiving the Noble Peace Prize in 1926
• Stresemann could take pride in the fact that he had established Germany’s position as an equal partner in diplomatic negotiations with 3 major western powers – France, Britain, and the USA
• Strategically, Stresemann had achieved a good deal with very little loss to Germany
• The German nationalist right, however, attacked Stresemann for satisfying the Allies and giving too much away

Question 5

League of nations

Answer 5

• When the league of nations was set up, as part of the Versailles treaty, Germany was initially excluded
• By signing the Locarno pact, Germany showed that it was accepting the Versailles settlement and so, a year later, in 1926, Germany was accepted as a permanent member of the Council of the League, making it one of the most powerful countries in the League
• This obviously improved foreign relationships for Germany and made them equal with the most powerful countries in the world
• This gave Germany increased power and prevented further terms, such as the treaty of Versailles, being forced upon them

Question 6

Relations with the USSR

Answer 6

• After the revolution of 1917 in Russia and 1918 in Germany, the two former enemies took very different political paths
• Russia, which became the USSR in 1922, became the world’s first communist state, in which the rights of the individual were ranked less than those of the state
• Germany adopted a democratic system of government, which guaranteed individual freedom
• Although there was a large communist party in Germany which campaigned for close links with the USSR, most Germans opposed to the communist political system
• There were, however, some similarities in the post war situation of both countries:
  • Both countries had been defeated in the war and had suffered from punitive peace treaties
  • Both countries felt that the existence of an independent Poland, supported by French guarantees, was a threat to their security. Poland also contained large German and Russian minorities
  • Both Germany and Russia/USSR were treated as outcast nations by the victorious powers and were not allowed to join the League of Nations
• These similarities led to some people in Germany seeing advantages in a closer working relationship with Russia/USSR
• Among these was Walther Rathenau, who, in April 1922, had negotiated the Treaty of Rapallo with Russia
• The Treaty of Rapallo had the following terms:
  • Germany and Russia resumed trade and economic cooperation
  • Diplomatic relations between the two countries were restored
  • All outstanding claims for compensation for war damage were dropped
  • Germany was allowed to develop new weapons and train pilots in Russia, away from the scrutiny of the Allied powers
• Although the treaty did not specify cooperation between Germany and Russia against Poland, this was clearly implied in the existence of the Treaty
• For Germany, therefore, the Treaty of Rapallo was an important and symbolic step away from its post-war isolation
• However, the allies, particularly France, were angered by this treaty as it showed Germany’s intentions to get around the disarmament terms of the Treaty of Versailles as well as its refusal to accept its eastern frontier (border) with Poland

Question 7

The treaty of Berlin

Answer 7

• In April 1926, Germany and the USSR renewed their earlier treaty in the treaty of berlin
• This added very little to the original treaty except for the agreement that Germany would remain neutral if the USSR were to be involved in a war, as long as the USSR was not the aggressor
• This treaty was signed a year after the Locarno Pact and showed that, despite his agreement to guarantee Germany’s western borders, Stresemann had not abandoned his desire to have Germany’s eastern borders revised
• In order to achieve this revision, a close relationship with the USSR was vital because the USSR would resist any border changes it did not agree with
• This treaty created a good relationship between Germany and the USSR which was vital

Question 8

The extent of disarmament

Answer 8

• Under the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany’s army was limited to 100,000 men, it was not allowed and air force and its navy wasn’t allowed submarines and large battleships
• In addition, the Rhineland area was to be demilitarised, meaning German fortifications had to be dismantled and no German troops were allowed to be based in the area
• In order to ensure compliance with the treaty, allied forces occupied the Rhineland and an Inter-Allied control commission (IMCC) was established in Germany to monitor the disarmament
• The disarmament clauses caused major resentment in Germany, especially as the allies were free to maintain their own formidable armed forces
• As the Treaty of Rapallo began to show, Germany looked for, and found, ways to get around the disarmament clauses
• Similar agreements with other countries allowed Germany to build submarines in spain and tanks and artillery in Sweden
• This secret rearmament did not provide Germany with a fully operational air force, or an army with unlimited supplies of modern weapons, but it did ensure that Germany did not fall behind other powers in technological developments
• German fortifications along the Rhine were removed in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles but new fortifications were built along the Polish frontier
• Under the Chief of the Army General von Seeckt’s command, the Reichswehr (German army) found other ways of getting around the limit on the size of the army
• Most recruits to the army were enlisted for short periods during which they would receive intensive military training
• This training ensured that there was a reserve of highly trained men who could be recalled to the army at short notice
• The army sponsored a number of paramilitary groups, which also formed a potential military reserve force
• Even when the Freikorps was disbanded after the failed Kapp Putsch, there were many unofficial paramilitary groups that had a close relationship with the army
• General von Seeckt aimed to restore Germany’s military power and he worked towards a military alliance with Russia/USSR which aimed to destroy the newly independent Poland
• Many of the details of Seeckt’s agreements with the Red Army (Russian army) were kept secret from the politicians Seeckt was supposed to be accountable to
• However, politicians such as Rathenau and Stresemann were involved in negotiating the Treaties of Rapallo (1922) and Berlin (1926), which formalise the relationship with Russia/USSR, and chose to turn a blind eye to the extent of military cooperation
• Secret rearmament was a policy driven by army commanders such as von Seeckt, but was tactically approved by the politicians

Question 9

Kellogg-Briand pact

Answer 9

• In 1928, Germany signed the Kellogg-Briand pact with France and the USA
• Frank Kellogg, the American secretary of state, and Aristide Briand, Foreign minister of France, drew up an international agreement under which states would agree voluntarily to abandon the use of war to resolve disputes
• Germany was one of the first states to sign this agreement and was followed by many other countries
• The pact had symbolic importance as an international agreement to avoid war, but its lack of any enforcement mechanism limited its effectiveness
• The initial concept of this pact, however, would have benefitted Germany due to its limited army

Question 10

The end of allied occupation

Answer 10

• The removal of foreign forces from Germany was an aim shared by Germans of all political parties
• Stresemann’s policy of fulfilment secured this objective by 1930
• The French, concerned for their own security and suspicious of Germany’s willingness to comply with the treaty of Versailles, were the most reluctant of all the allied powers to withdraw occupying forces
• The withdrawal of forces was, therefore, a step by step process, which involved compromise and concession on both sides
• After the evidence of German willingness to cooperate with the Allies provided through the Dawes Plan of 1924 and the Locarno pact of 1925, occupying forces were withdrawn from zone 1 of the Rhineland in 1926
• The allies also withdrew the IMCC from Germany in 1926
• Further progress, however, was dependent on a final settlement of the reparations issue
• Once the young plan had been agreed by Germany in 1929, the way was clear for the withdrawal of the remaining allied forces so, in 1929, they were withdrawn from zone 2 and, in 1930, from zone 3
• This had happened 5 years ahead of the schedule laid down in the Treaty of Versailles
• Although Stresemann had died in 1929 before this process was completed, this success was largely due to his policies