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chapter 8 Flashcards

1
Q

asexual reproduction

A

reproduction without sex ; parent cells divides only once to produce 2 genetically identical daughter daughter cells or offspring

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2
Q

How do prokaryotic cells reproduce

A

bacteria and arches reproduce asexually binary fission

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3
Q

binary fission

A

dividing in half

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4
Q

two daughter cells in prokaryotic cells

A

are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell; each with 1 chromosome

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5
Q

all cells in our body except egg and sperm cells are called

A

somatic cells(body)

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6
Q

how are somatic cells produced

A

asexually by mitosis

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7
Q

what does mitosis allow us to do

A

allows us to grow and to replace damaged or worn out somatic cells

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8
Q

what are egg and sperm cells called

A

gametes or germ cells produced by meiosis

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9
Q

how are eukaryotic cells reproduced

A

by completing the cell cycle

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10
Q

mitotic phase consists of

A

cytokinesis, mitosis

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11
Q

G1 (first gap)

A

cells grow but doesnt divide

go=resting phase

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12
Q

S (DNA synthesis phase)

A

cell duplicates its dan and chromosomes; duplication of centrosomes begins

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13
Q

mitosis

A

nucleus divides

(PPMAT)

  • prophase
  • prometaphase
  • metaphase
  • anaphase
  • telophase
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14
Q

cytokinesis

A

cytoplasm divides

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15
Q

during mitosis how many many chromosomes of parent cells are their

A

46 chromosomes of parent skin cells

2 daughter cells; each with 46 chromosomes

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16
Q

what doesnt change in mitosis

A

in mitosis the number of chromosomes doesnt change between the parent and each daughter cell

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17
Q

what do cells look like in late interphase(G20

A

2 centrosomes- regions where microtubules grow out from each centrosome contains-2centrioles made of microtubules

nuclear envelope is intact

chromosomes are loosely packed(decondensed)

each chromosome consists of 2 identical sister chromatids that are held together by centromere

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18
Q

what happenes to cells during prophase

A

first phase of mitosis

nuclear envelope is still present; 4 chromosomes, 8 chromatids

chromosomes are tightly packed(condensed)

two centrosomes are still present

mitotic spindle begins to form

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19
Q

what happens during prometaphase

A

second phase of mitosis

centrosomes moved to opposite poles of the cell

chromosomes are tightly packed

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE BREAKS APART

some spindle microtubules bind to kinetochores(proteins) of all chromatids

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20
Q

what happens during metaphase

A

third phase of mitosis

two centrosomes are still present

mitotic spindle brings all chromosomes to the middle of the cell

chromosomes align on the metaphase plate

kinetochores of sister chromatids are facing the opposite poles of the spindle

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21
Q

metaphase plate

A

imaginary line in the middle of the cell

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22
Q

meiosis

A

when parent cells go through 2 rounds of cell division to produce 4 daughter cells, which are genetically different from each other

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23
Q

1st set of chromosomes

A

haploid gametes”germ” cells

n=23

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24
Q

number of chromosomes found in ovaries and testies

A

2n=46 chromosomes

n=23 egg cells
n=23 sperm cells

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25
Q

multicellular diploid

A

2n=46

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26
Q

mitosis

A

somatic cells; produces 2 genetically identical daughter cells through 1 round of cell division

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27
Q

meiosis

A

egg and sperm

chromosomes are reduced, each gamet has 1/2 chromosomes as parent cell

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28
Q

meiosis 1

A

homologous chromosomes separate

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29
Q

meiosis 2

A

sister chromatids separate (daughter chromosomes)

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30
Q

meiosis 1 and 2 include what…

A

prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

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31
Q

interphase occurs before what

A

meiosis

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32
Q

meiosis 1»>prophase 1

A

nuclear envelope breaks apart and mitotic spindle begins to form 6 chromosomes, 12 chromatins and 3 tetrads

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33
Q

prophase 1

A

chromosomes condense

homologous chromosomes pair up(synapsis) and form tetrads

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34
Q

whats phase only has tetrads

A

only occur during prophase 1

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35
Q

where does crossing over occur

A 
maternal chromosomes (mom)
paternal chromosome(dad) 
2 maternal sister chromatids 
2 paternal sister chromatids =identical 
2 maternal sister chromatids=identical
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36
Q

homologous chromosomes

A

maternal chromatid 1 and paternal chromatid 1 = non-identical

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37
Q

characteristics of homologous chromosomes

A

are the same size, same genes and loci(position of genes on the chromosomes) but not necessarily the same version of the genes (non-sister)

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38
Q

crossing-over

A

the exchange of DNA between non-identical (but homologous) chromatids of homologous chromosomes

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39
Q

what is crossing over unique to

A

prophase 1

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40
Q

what is the site of crossing over

A

chiasma

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41
Q

what is the reason why we don’t look identical to our parents

A

crossing over ; also contributes to species diversity and independent assortment

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42
Q

recombinant chromosomes

A

new chromosomes are produced because of crossing over between gene 1 and gene 2

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43
Q

independent assortment

A

random alignment of maternal and paternal chromosomes on the metaphase plate (metaphase1)

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44
Q

what occurs during metaphase 1 in meiosis 1

A

tetrads align on the metaphase plate (pair of homologous chromosomes)

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45
Q

what occurs during anaphase 1 in meiosis 1

A

sister chromatids remain attached (non-identical because of crossing over

homologous chromosomes separate

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46
Q

what is allowed in interphase between meiosis 1 and meiosis 2

A

allows cell growth and centrosome duplication, but no chromosome duplication

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47
Q

what happens to chromosomes in meiosis 2

A

the number of chromosomes is reduced i half

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48
Q

nondisjunction

A

failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to seperate properly during anaphase 1 or anaphase 2

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49
Q

anaphase 1 during nondisjunction

A

nondisjunction pair of homologous chromosomes that fail to separate

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50
Q

aneuploid

A

nondisjunction gametes that have one less or one extra chromosome

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51
Q

what phase does aneuploid occur

A

anaphase 2

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52
Q

monosomy

A

monosomic human has 45 chromosomes (somatic cells)

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53
Q

is monosomy chromosome absent or present

A

when one chromosome is absent

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54
Q

trisomy

A

human has 47 chromosomes instead of 46 (somatic cells)

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55
Q

does trisomy have one less chromosome or an extra chromosome

A

extra chromosome is present

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56
Q

how do we know if a mistake occurred during meiosis

A

karyotype

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57
Q

karyotype

A

picture of all chromosomes in a single cell

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58
Q

each human somatic cell is what

A

diploid

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59
Q

how many pairs of chromosomes does diploid cell have

A

23 pairs from each parent

2n=46

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60
Q

what are chromosomes 1-22 called

A

autosomes or non sex chromosomes

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61
Q

what does chromosomes 1-22 determine

A

nothing; they dont determine the gender or the organism

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62
Q

what are the 23rd pair of chromosomes called

A

sex chromosomes; differ between female and male

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63
Q

human female

A

XX= homologous

64
Q

human male

A

XY=non-homologous

65
Q

what is human gamet(egg and sperm)

A

haploid

n=23

66
Q

what would happen if sperm had only Y

A

daughter cells would never be made

67
Q

karyotype analysis

A

(46 normal male chromosomes)

  1. gender of the organism
  2. normal or abnormal number of chromosomes
  3. length or size of chromosomes
68
Q

trisomy or down syndrome

A

has 3 copies of chromosome 21

69
Q

how many chromosomes does a male have in trisomy

A

47 chromosomes instead of 46

70
Q

what is responsible for down syndrome

A

nondisjunction of chromosome 21

71
Q

what is associated with chromosome pairs 1-22

A

down syndrome= AUTOSOMAL abnormalities

72
Q

what chromosomes are considered normal

A

XYY

XXX

73
Q

what syndrome is trisomy

A

Klinefelter syndrome is trisomy where male has 47 chromosomes in each of his somatic cells because of extra X chromosome (sterile)

74
Q

does Klinefelter syndrome occur in male or female

A

male

75
Q

how many chromosomes are found in Klinefelter syndrome

A

47

XXY

76
Q

What syndrome is monosomy

A

turner syndrome

77
Q

how many chromosomes are found in Turners syndrome

A

45 chromosomes instead of 46 due to lack of 1 X chromosome

XO

78
Q

Does Turner syndrome occur in male or female

A

female

79
Q

deletion

A

part of the chromosome is deleted, make sit shorter

80
Q

duplication

A

part of the chromosome is duplicated, makes it longer

2 copies of gene 2

81
Q

inversion

A

segment of chromosome is broken in two places, reversed and put back together

82
Q

reciprocal translation

A

non homologous chromosomes exchange regions with each other creating two new chromosomes

83
Q

what is the most common leukemia

A

chronic myelogenous leukemia

84
Q

what does leukemia affect

A

cells that give rise to white blood cells (leukocytes)

85
Q

reciprocal duplication in chronic myelogenous leukemia

A

part of the chromosomes 22 switches places with a small fragment from a tip of chromosome 9

86
Q

homologous chromosomes also known as Philadelphia chromosomes

A

chromsome 22= very short

chromosome 9=long

87
Q

tumor

A

mass of abnormally dividing cells, exhibiting uncontrolled cell division (mitosis)

88
Q

benign tumor

A

non-cancerous

well defined edges; tumor divides but does not separate

89
Q

malignant tumor

A

cancerous; edges are no longer well defines

invades surrounding tissues

90
Q

metastasis tumor

A

cancerous

tumor uses blood and lymphatic vessels to invade other body parts

91
Q

anaphase

A

4th phase of mitosis

sister chromatids separate from each other and are no longer called sister chromatid they are now called daughter chromosomes

spindle microtubules attached to the kinetochores gets shorter allowing daughter chromosomes to move to the opposite end of the cells

92
Q

telophase

A

5th phase of mitosis

2 centrosomes are still present

2 nuclear envelope reforms around each set of 2 chromosomes

chromosomes uncoil (decondensed)

93
Q

during what phase does the mitotic spindle disassemble

A

before telephase ends

94
Q

what occurs during cytokinesis

A

cleavage furrow

95
Q

is cleavage furrow found in plant or animal cell

A

animal cell

96
Q

cleavage furrow forms outside or inside the cell

A

forms outside the cell due to the formation of contacting rings or microfilaments

97
Q

contracting rings or microfilaments that occur in cleavage furrow happen inside or outside the cell

A

inside the cell (actin filaments)

98
Q

what does contracting filaments cause cleavage furrow do to daughter cells

A

deepen and split parent cells into 2 daughter cells

2 daughter cells are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell

99
Q

what forms in plant cell during cytokinesis

A

cell wall or cell plate

100
Q

what is produced during cell plate

A

2 daughter cells are produced when cell plate moves outward to connect with plasma membrane

101
Q

cell plate

A

new cell wall that forms in the middle of the dividing plant cell

vesicles containing cellular material gathered in the middle of the cell and they form together to form cell plate

102
Q

growth factors

A

proteins that stimulate some cells to divide (mitogens) and cells to grow (to get bigger)

103
Q

what would happen if their were no growth factors

A

cells would not divide

104
Q

anchorage dependence of growth

A

cells must be in contact with a solid surface to divide

105
Q

density dependent inhabitation

A

cells that are touched on all sides stop dividing

106
Q

relay proteins

A

relay the signals from the cell surface to the cells control system

107
Q

control systems

A

includes molecules that trigger and coordinate key events in the cells

108
Q

G Checkpoint or R

A

found at the end of G phase, makes sure the cell is growing and DNA is not damaged

109
Q

G2 checkpoint

A

found at the end of the G2 phase makes sure that the cell has duplicated its DNA and centrosomes

110
Q

M checkpoint

A

found during mitosis of M phase; makes sure that all chromosomes are aligned on the metaphase plate

111
Q

what is the mating between 2 organisms which are similar in everything but 1 character

A

monohybrid cross

112
Q

what do we have 2 versions of for each character encoded by a gene

A

alleles: one paternal and one maternal

113
Q

homozygous dominant

A

the same two dominant alleles

PP

114
Q

Homozygous recessive

A

the same to recessive alleles

Pp

115
Q

heterozygous

A

one dominant and one recessive

Pp

116
Q

In pea plants purple trait is dominant

A

trait that shows up in every generation of the family

117
Q

white trait is recessive meaning

A

trait that skips 1 or more generations

118
Q

what are examples of genotypes

A

homozygous recessive, homozygous dominant and heterozygous

119
Q

what is the make up of organism

A

genotype

120
Q

what does genotype tell us about?

A

genes or alleles

121
Q

what is the physical appearance or something we can see or observe

A

phenotype

122
Q

homozygous dominant

A

know how to figure out gametes

P generation (true breeding parents)

123
Q

what produces purple flowers

A

homozygous dominant and heterozygous

124
Q

what produces white flowers

A

homozygous recessive

125
Q

what are examples of phenotypes

A

purple flowers and white flowers

126
Q

Punnet square

A

way to determine the probability or chance of seeing particular trait in offspring

127
Q

what is a family tree that shows the inheritance of a trait in a family through multiple generations

A

pedigree

128
Q

incomplete dominance

A

heterozygous genotype has a phenotype that is intermediate between phenotypes of the two homozygotes

129
Q

In snap dragons dominant allele for red flowers is what?

A

is NOT truly dominant because it can’t mask the recessive allele for white flowers from being seen in heterozygous

130
Q

dominant alleles for purple flowers

A

shows up in all generations

131
Q

recessive allele for white flowers

A

skips one or more generation

132
Q

PP

A

homozygous for the dominant allele

133
Q

aa

A

homozygous for the recessive allele

134
Q

Bb

A

heterozygous with one dominant and one recessive

135
Q

traits that are encoded by the genes that are located close to each other are more than likely to be what?

A

to be inherited together than those encoded by the genes located far apart

136
Q

what is used to determine whether unknown genotype is homozygous dominant or heterozygous

A

testcross

137
Q

test cross definition

A

cross between an organism of unknown genotype for a particular characteristic and organism who is homozygous recessive

138
Q

traits that are most seen in nature and not necessarily specified by dominant allele

A

wild type trait

139
Q

what can be dominant or recessive in humans

A

autosomal disorders

140
Q

pleiotropy

A

single gene affects several phenotypic characteristic

141
Q

polygenic inheritance

A

many genes control a single phenotypic character

142
Q

examples of phenotypic characteristics

A

eye color, skin color and height

143
Q

what determines the sex of offspring

A

in humans its Y CHROMOSOME

144
Q

X-linked genes

A

found on the x chromosomes

145
Q

sex linked genes are found on what chromosomes

A

sex chromosomes

146
Q

females and males

A

x-linked

147
Q

males only

A

y-linked

148
Q

in fruit flies what determines eye color

A

gene that determines eye color is located on the X-chromosome

149
Q

how do male flies develop white eyes

A

they should inherit x-linked recessive allele (white eye allele) from their mom only

150
Q

how do female flies develop white eyes

A

they should inherit 2x-linked recessive alleles one from each parent

151
Q

why are males more likely to have x-linked disorders than females

A

because they have only 1x chromosome, while females have 2x chromosomes

152
Q

DNA nucleotide or deoxynuclotide

A

without oxygen

nitrogenous base, phosphate group, sugar deoxyribose

153
Q

sugar phosphate backbone

A

made of sugars and phosphate groups

154
Q

what are the bases in DNA

A

because there are different nitrogenous bases there are 4 different deoxynucleotides

155
Q

bases in DNA

A

thymine, cytosine, adenine, guanine

156
Q

what letter only has DNA

A

T

chapter 8 (1 decks)

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