Chapter 8

Question 1

_ is a form of learning in which organisms learn to predict events based on relationships between events. At its most basic, _ is a learning process that creates new reflexes

Answer 1

Classical conditioning

Question 2

A _ is a simple, relatively automatic, stimulus–response sequence mediated by the nervous system.

Answer 2

reflex

Question 3

a particular well-defined event in the environment, a _ , results in a particular well-defined behavior, a _

Answer 3

stimulus
response

Question 4

One simple effect of experience on reflexes is _ , defined as a decline in the magnitude of a reflexive response when the stimulus is repeated several times in succession. Simply put, _ occurs when we get used to something. _ is one of the simplest forms of learning (example of the cuckoo clock –> wakes you up only if its new (survival instincts)

Answer 4

habituation

Question 5

stimulus (cause the response) (ex: bell ringing lead to the dog to salivate)

Answer 5

conditioned stimulus

Question 6

response, salivation, pavlovian conditioning

Answer 6

conditioned response

Question 7

original stimulus (food)

Answer 7

unconditioned stimulus

Question 8

response (salivation due to original stimulus)

Answer 8

unconditioned response

Question 9

Pavlov’s group found that without food, the bell elicited less and less salivation on each trial and eventually none at all, a phenomenon they labeled _

Answer 9

extinction

Question 10

The mere passage of time following extinction can partially renew the conditioned response, a phenomenon now known as _
–> conditioned response is only inhibited but is not lost (other sets of neurons counterinteract the exciting neurons

Answer 10

spontaneous recovery

Question 11

after conditioning, animals would show the conditioned response not just to the original conditioned stimulus but also to new stimuli that resembled that stimulus. This phenomenon is called _

Answer 11

generalization

Question 12

Generalization between two stimuli can be abolished if the response to one is reinforced while the response to the other is extinguished, a procedure called _

Answer 12

discrimination training

Question 13

That is, the conditioned response generalized more to printed words that resembled the original conditioned stimuli in meaning than to those that resembled the originals in physical appearance or sound
(meaning more important than the physical prononciation)

Answer 13

Generalization as an Index of Subjective Similarity

Question 14

Using mental rather than neural terms, we could say that the dog salivates to the bell because the bell sound elicits in the dog a mental representation of food (bell → mental representation of food → salivation).
experiment of the rats (stopped freezing after hearing loud sound)

Answer 14

stimulus-stimulus (S-S)

Question 15

According to _ , all these responses, including salivation, occur not because they were previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus but because they are the dog’s responses to the expectation of food
–> animals have built-in neural mechanisms that automatically make the appropriate calculations

Answer 15

Expectancy theory

Question 16

1)The conditioned stimulus must precede the unconditioned stimulus
2) the conditioned stimulus must signal heightened probability of occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus –> brain also need to prepare the body to have the response without the conditioned stimulus
3) Conditioning is ineffective when the animal already has a good predictor=blocking effect; the already- conditioned stimulus blocks conditioning to the new stimulus that has been paired with it

Answer 16

what helps the animal predict the arrival of the unconditioned stimulus?

Question 17

_ refers to changes in the strength of liking or disliking of a stimulus as a result of being paired with another positive or negative stimulus. classical conditioning shape preference (if paired with something we like then increase the liking)

Answer 17

Evaluative conditioning

Question 18

operate on the world to produce some effect

Answer 18

operant response/ instrumental responses

Question 19

The process by which people or other animals learn to make operant responses is called _

Answer 19

operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning

Question 20

animal could open a bow from the inside very easily: learn through error

Answer 20

Thorndike puzzle

Question 21

Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation

Answer 21

law of effect (thorndike)

Question 22

a cage with a lever or another mechanism in it that the animal can operate to produce some effect, such as delivery of a pellet of food or a drop of water

Answer 22

Skinner box

Question 23

He coined the terms operant response to refer to any behavioral act that has some effect on the environment and operant conditioning to refer to the process by which the effect of an operant response changes the likelihood of the response’s recurrence

Answer 23

operant response/operant conditioning

Question 24

replacement for such words as satisfaction and reward, to refer to a stimulus change that follows
a response and increases the subsequent frequency of that response

Answer 24

reinforcer

Question 25

The solution to this problem is a technique called shaping, in which successively closer approximations to the desired response are reinforced until the desired response finally occurs and can be reinforced.

Answer 25

shaping : need this if desired response does not happen so cannot be reinforce

Question 26

in the real world as well as in laboratory experiments, a particular response may only produce a reinforcer some of the time. This is referred to as partial reinforcement, to distinguish it on the one hand from continuous reinforcement, where the response is always reinforced, and on the other hand from extinction, where the response is never reinforced

Answer 26

partial reinforcement
continuous reinforcement
extinction

Answer 27

fixed ratio schedule
variable-ratio schedule
a fixed-interval schedule
variable-interval schedule

Answer 28

rapid responding for =ratio schedule
schedule interval=low response rates that depend on the length of the fixed or average interval

Question 29

_ refers to any process that increases the likelihood that a particular response will occur.

Answer 29

reinforcement

Question 30

occurs when the arrival of some stimulus following a response makes the response more likely to recur: money, food

Answer 30

positive reinforcement

Question 31

occurs when the removal of some stimulus following a response makes the response more likely to recur: loud noise, unpleasant company

Answer 31

negative reinforcement

Question 32

_ is the opposite of reinforcement. It is the process through which the consequence of a response decreases the likelihood that the response will recur

Answer 32

punishment

Question 33

the arrival of a stimulus, such as electric shock for a rat or scolding for a person, decreases the likelihood that the response will occur again

Answer 33

positive punishment

Question 34

the removal of a stimulus, such as taking food away from a hungry rat or money away from a person, decreases the likelihood that the response will occur again

Answer 34

negative punishment

Question 35

is the decline in a previously reinforced response when it no longer produces any effect.

Answer 35

extinction (different from punishment)

Question 36

to train a rat to respond to a tone by pressing a lever, a trainer would alternate between reinforcement periods with the tone on (during which the animal gets food pellets for responding) and extinction periods with the tone off. After considerable training of this sort, the rat will begin pressing the lever as soon as the tone comes on and stop as soon as it goes off. The tone in this example is called a _

Answer 36

discriminative stimulus

Question 37

The drop in performance following a period of reward is particularly likely to occur when the task is something that is initially enjoyed for its own sake and the reward is given in such a manner that it seems to be designed deliberately to motivate the participants to engage in the task

Answer 37

overjusticfication effect (do it because their is a reward, you do it for work), reward gives a reason to participate in this behavior

Question 38

operant conditioning, discrimination and generalization serve as indicators of whether the subject has acquired concept understanding. From this perspective, one has achieved “understanding” to the degree to which one can predict and influence future occurrences of behavior

Question 39

When behavior analysis is applied specifically to modify problem behaviors, especially as part of a learning or treatment process, it is referred to as _

Answer 39

applied behavior analysis

Question 40

Groos argued that the primary purpose of play is to provide a means for young animals to practice their instincts —their species-typical behaviors

Answer 40

Groos theory on playing

Question 41

_, which is also called fantasy, pretend or make-believe play, includes an “as if” orientation to objects, actions, and other people and increases during early childhood as a result of children’s growing abilities to use symbols to represent something as other than itself

Answer 41

Symbolic play

Question 42

what lead to learning

Answer 42

play, curiosity
learning to do (skill learning) and learning about (information learning). Play evolved to serve the former, and exploration evolved to serve the latter.

Question 43

Latent learning suggests that animals can acquire knowledge or form mental representations of their environment through exploration and experience, even if they do not immediately demonstrate this knowledge in their behavior. Instead, the learning remains “latent” until there is an incentive or motivation to utilize it.

Answer 43

latent learning

Question 44

. Social learning is broadly defined as occurring in a situation “in which one individual comes to behave similarly to another”

Answer 44

social learning (copy others)

Question 45

children learn a lot by looking at others , through a process of vicarious reinforcement, the ability to learn from the consequences of others’ actions

Answer 45

social learning theory

vicarious reinforcement

Question 46

chimpanzees they are more apt to learn by emulation, which involves observing another individual achieve some goal (picking up and dropping a log to reveal tasty ants, for instance), then reaching that same goal by their own means (bouncing up and down on the log)

Answer 46

emulation

chimpanzees seem to be more focused on the goal and less on the means used to achieve it, a characteristic of emulation.

Question 47

he Westermarck effect is a psychological phenomenon observed in humans, which suggests that individuals who live in close proximity during their early childhood years are less likely to form romantic or sexual attractions to each other later in life

Answer 47

westermarck effect

Answer 48

critical period

Question 49

ducklings follow anybody after they hatch and will follow them for a long time

Answer 49

imprinting

Question 50

an animal’s early experiences could influence subsequent sexual preference

Answer 50

sexual imprinting