Chapter 8

Question 1

Romain du Roi

Answer 1

the new typeface France’s King Louis XIV ordered to be developed for the royal printing office. It was characterized by an increased contrast between thick and think strokes, sharp horizontal serifs, and an even balance to each letterform

Question 2

Folio

Answer 2

A sheet of paper folded once vertically down the center to create four pages

Question 3

Old style

Answer 3

the name given to the Venetian tradition of roman type design

Question 4

Traditional roman

Answer 4

the category of typefaces whose style was initiated by the Roman du Roi. These broke with the traditional calligraphic qualities, bracketed serifs, and a relatively even stroke weights of Old Style fonts.

Question 5

Rococo

Answer 5

the fanciful French art and architecture that flourished from about 1720 until around 1770. Florid and intricate, rococo ornament is composed of S and C curves, with scrollwork, tracery, and plant forms derived from nature, classical and oriental art, and even medieval sources. Light pastel colors were often used with ivory, white, and gold in asymmetrically balanced designs

Question 6

pouce

Answer 6

a now-obsolete French unit of measure slightly longer than an inch, standardized by Pierre Simon Fournier le Jeune. The pouce was divided into 12 lines, each of which was divided into 6 points

Question 7

Point

Answer 7

the smallest unit in Fournier le Jeune’s system of type measurement. 6 points made 1 line, 12 lines made 1 pouce.

Question 8

type family

Answer 8

fonts in a variety of weights and widths that are visually compatible and can be mixed

Question 9

engraving

Answer 9

a drawing made with a graver instead of a pencil as the drawing tool, and a smooth copperplate instead of a sheet of paper as the substrate. Because this free line was an ideal medium for expressing the florid curves of the rococo sensibility, engraving flourished throughout the 1700s.

Question 10

packing

Answer 10

on a letterpress, the material placed behind the sheet of paper being printed. John Baskerville used unusually hard and smooth packing, which resulted in even overall impressions

Question 11

paper with laid finish

Answer 11

paper that has a textural pattern of horizontal lines. This pattern is created during manufacturing by wires that form the screen in the papermaker’s mold; the close parallel wired are supported by larger wires running at right angels to the thinner wires

Question 12

paper with wove finish

Answer 12

paper that has a smooth finish. The wove paper manufactured for Braskerville was formed by a mod having a much finer screen made of wires woven in and out like cloth. The texture of wire marks was virtually eliminated from this paper

Question 13

calendaring paper

Answer 13

a method of hot-pressing paper to give it a smooth, refined surface. Baskerville experimented with calendaring paper. Because he closely guarded his innovations, we can only guess what methods were employed. Early sources suggest he may have used 2 copper rollers and a pressing to glazing machine that worked in a manner not unlike ironing clothes; or as each page was removed from the press it may have been sandwiched between 2 highly polished, heated copperplates that expelled moisture, set the ink, and created the glossy surface.

Question 14

analytic geometry

Answer 14

The branch of geometry was developed and first used in 1637 by the French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist Rene Descartes (1596-1650), and is the foundation for information graphics, which presents complex information in a more comprehensible form

Question 15

axes

Answer 15

two perpendicular intersecting lines of a two-dimensional plane that represent a point in space. The horizontal lie is called the x-axis and the vertical line, the y. Developed by Descartes and used in his analytic geometry

Question 16

Cartesian Coordinates

Answer 16

any point on a plane can be specified by two numbers, called Cartesian coordinates. One defines its distance from the horizontal axis, and the other defines its distance from the vertical axis. The axes can be repeated at regular intervals to form a grid of horizontal and vertical lines called a Cartesian grid

Question 17

line (fever) graph

Answer 17

uses Cartesian coordinates to convert statistical data into symbolic graphics. Line graphs, bar charts, and divided circle diagrams (pie charts) were introduced in 1786 by Scottish author and scientist William Playfair (1759-1823) in his book entitled Commercial and Political Atlas

Question 18

modern

Answer 18

a new category of roman type introduced in Europe during the 18th century. The word modern was first used by Fournier le Jeune in his Manuel Typogrphiqueto describe the design trends that culminated in Bodoni’s mature work

Question 19

neoclassicism

Answer 19

A revival of classic Greek and Roman aesthetic forms characterized by order, simplicity, and symmetry. Critics hailed Bodoni’s volumes as the typographic expression of neoclassicism and a return to “antique virtue”

Question 20

maigre

Answer 20

• thin
• the Didot type foundry’s experimental expanded style fonts

Question 21

gras

Answer 21

• fat
• the Didot type foundry’s experimental expanded style fonts

Question 22

pied de roi

Answer 22

the official standard of measurement for identifying type sizes in France adopted by the Didot type foundry. The pied de roi was divided into 12 French inches, which were divided into 72 points

Question 23

Stereotyping

Answer 23

process that involves casting a duplicate of a relief printing surface by pressing a molding material (damp paper pulp, plaster, or clay) against it to make a matrix. Molten metal is poured into the matrix to form the duplicate printing plate. Stereotyping made longer press runs possible. The invention of stereotyping was the most notable achievement of Firmin Didot (1764-1836)

Question 24

Editions du Louvre

Answer 24

Printed by Pierre Didot, they gave the neoclassical revival of the Napoleonic era its graphic design expression. Lavish margins surround modern typography, and engraved illustrations by artists working in the neoclassical manner of the painter Jacques Louis David display flawless technique and sharp value contrast

Question 25

romanticism

Answer 25

an artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th century as a reaction against the neoclassical emphasis on reason and the intellect combined with a focus upon the imagination, introspection, and emotions in natural forms

Question 26

wood engraving

Answer 26

an illustration technique achieved by using a fine engraver to cut across the grain, as opposed to woodcuts, which were made by cutting with the grain on softer wood. Thomas Bewick (1753-1828), called the father of wood engraving, brought renown to his “white-line” technique, which became the major illustration method in letterpress printing until the advent of photomechanical halftones nearly a century later

Question 27

Pierre Simon Fournuer le Jeune

Answer 27

• 1712-68
• the youngest son of a prominent family of printers and type founders, Fournier le Jeune made more typographic innovations and has a greater impact on graphic design than any other person in his era.
• He pioneered standardization when he published his first table of proportion. The pouce was divided into 12 lines, each of which was divided into 6 points.
• In 1742, Fournier le Jeune published his first specimen book, Modeles des caracteres de l’imprimerie (Models of Printing Characters), which presented 4,600 characters that he had both designed and cut punches for during a 6 year period. His roman styles were transitional forms inspired by the Romain du Roi of 1702. His variety of weights ad widths initiated the idea of a “type family” of fonts that are visually compatible and can be mixed.
• Other accomplishments include complex page designs that were richly garlanded with his exquisite fleurons, used singly or multiplied for unlimited decorative effect; his explorations into casting, which enabled his to cast single, double, and triple ruled lines; and the largest metal types worked remarkably well with his roman fonts, ornaments, and rules to provide printers with a complete design system, etc.; the concept of a complete design system (roman, italic, and decorative type styles, rules and ornaments) of standardized measurement whose parts intergraded both visually and physically.
• Fournier le Jeune planned a 4 volume Manuel typographique (Manual of typography), but only produced 2 volumes Type, Its Cutting and Founding 1764 and Type Specimen(originally planned as volume 4), 1768. An improved measurement system based on the point was introduced in the 1764 volume. He did not live to complete the other 2 volumes, one on printing an one on the great typographer’s lives and work

Question 28

George Bickham the Elder

Answer 28

• 1654?-1758?
• the renowned English writing master and engraver was the most celebrated penman of his time. In 1742 he published The Universal Penman…exemplified in all the useful and ornamental branches of modem Penmanship & the whole embellished with 200 beautiful decoration for the amusement of the curious. Bickham and other accomplished engravers prominently signed broadsheets, title pages, and large images for domestic walls that were frequently based on oil paintings.

Question 29

John Pine

Answer 29

• 1690-1756
• Chief engraver of seals for the King of England, and one of the best engravers of his time. His books, including the 1737 Opera Horatii (Works of Horace), were produced independent of typographic printers by hand engraving both illustrations and text. Because the serifs and thin strokes of letterforms were reduced to the delicate scratch of the engravers finest tool, the contrast in the text material was dazzling and inspired imitation by typographic designers

Question 30

William Caslon

Answer 30

• 1692-1766
  Before Caslon, an English engraver of gunlocks and barrels and letter stamps for bookbinders (among other things) took up type design and founding in 1720, type and design ideas were imported across the English Channel from Holland. Caslon worked in a tradition of Old Style roman typographic design that had begun over two hundred years earlier during the Italian Renaissance. His first commission was an Arabic font for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. This was followed closely by the first size of Caslon Old Style with italic (Fig. 8–11) in 1722. For the next sixty years, virtually all English printing used Caslon fonts, and these types followed English colonialism around the globe. Printer Benjamin Franklin (1706–90) introduced Caslon to the American colonies, where it was used extensively, including for the official printing of the Declaration of Independence by a Baltimore printer. Caslon’s type designs owed their tremendous popularity and appeal to an outstanding legibility and sturdy texture that made them “comfortable” and “friendly to the eye.” Beginning with the Dutch types of his day, Caslon increased the contrast between thick and thin strokes by making the thick strokes slightly heavier. This was in direct opposition to fashion on the Continent, which was embracing the lighter texture of the Romain du Roi. Caslon’s fonts have variety in their design, giving them an uneven, rhythmic texture that adds to their visual interest and appeal. The Caslon foundry continued under his heirs and was in operation until the 1960s.

Question 31

John Baskerville

Answer 31

• 1706-75
• After making a fortune as a manufacturer of japanned ware, John Baskerville returned to his first love, the art of letters. He established a press near Birmingham, England, where he experimented with printing and was involved in all facets of the bookmaking process, including designing, casting, and setting type. Baskerville’s type designs, which bear his name to this day, represent the zenith of the transitional style bridging the gap between Old Style and modern type design. His letters possessed a new elegance and lightness. In comparison with earlier designs, his types are wider, the weight contrast between thick and thin strokes is increased, and the placement of the thickest part of the letter is different. The treatment of serifs is new: they flow smoothly out of the major strokes and terminate as refined points. Formerly a master writing teacher and stonecutter (Fig. 8–13), Baskerville’s italic fonts most clearly show the influence of master handwriting. As a book designer in a period of intricate, engraved title pages and illustrations and the generous use of printers’ flowers, ornaments, and decorated initials, Baskerville opted for the pure typographic book (Figs. 8–14 and 8–15), including wide margins and a liberal use of space between letters. Other important contributions made by Baskerville were perfecting alignment between parts of the press; achieving even, overall impressions by using unusually hard and smooth packing behind the sheet of paper being printed, enhancing the smooth finish of hot-pressed wove paper; and developing a dense black ink. Baskerville published fifty-six books, the most ambitious being a folio Bible in 1763. The design of his type and books became important influences on the Continent as the Italian Giambattista Bodoni (1740–1813) and the Didot family in Paris became enthusiastic about his work.

Question 32

Rene Descartes

Answer 32

• 1596-1650
• the French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who developed and first used in 1637 analytic geometry, which became the foundation for information graphics. Descartes used algebra to solve geometry problems, formulate equations to represent lines and curves, and represent a point in space by a pair of numbers, the xandycoordinates, or Cartesian coordinates. The axes can be repeated at regular intervals to form a grid of horizontal and vertical lines called a Cartesian grid.

Question 33

William Playfair

Answer 33

• 1759-1823
• a Scottish author and scientist who used Cartesian coordinates and other aspects of analytic geometry to convert statistical data into symbolic graphics. Playfair introduced the line(orfever)graph (Figs. 8–19 and 8–20), the bar chart, and the first “divided circle” diagram (called a pie chart today) to graphically present complex information. In 1786, he published Commercial and Political Atlas, in 1801 Statistical Breviary, and in 1805 the English translation of a French book, The Statistical Account of the United States of America. Information graphics has gained importance because of our expanding base of knowledge, which requires graphics to present complex information in an understandable form.

Question 34

Louis Rene Luce

Answer 34

• d.1773
• A type designer and punch cutter at the Imprimerie Royale from 1740 until 1770, Luce designed a series of types that were narrow and condensed, with sharp serifs; and a large series of letterpress borders, ornaments, trophies, and other devices of impressive variety and excellent printing quality. Cast in modular sections, these ornaments were then assembled into the desired configuration by the compositor. The density of line in Luce’s ornaments was carefully planned to be visually compatible with his typefaces and often had an identical weight so that they looked as if they belonged together in a design. In 1771 Luce published his Essai d’une Nouvelle Typographie (Essay on a New Typography), with ninety-three plates presenting the range of his design accomplishments (Fig. 8–21).

Question 35

Giambattista Bodoni

Answer 35

• 1740-1813
• The son of an indigent printer, Giambattista Bodoni was born in Saluzzo in northern Italy. Bodoni was in charge of the Stamperia Reale, the official press of Ferdinand, Duke of Parma. He printed official documents and publications desired by the duke in addition to projects he conceived and initiated himself. His initial design influence was the rococo style of Fournier le Jeune (Fig. 8–22), whose foundry supplied type and ornaments to the Stamperia Reale. The revolt against the French monarchy led to a rejection of the lush designs so popular during the reigns of Louis XV and XVI, and all areas of design required a new approach to replace the outmoded rococo style. Bodoni led the way in evolving new typefaces and page layout. Around 1790 Bodoni redesigned the roman letterforms to give them a more mathematical, geometric, and mechanical appearance. Serifs became hairlines that formed sharp right angles with the upright strokes, eliminating the tapered flow of the serif into the upright stroke in Old Style roman. The thin strokes of Bodoni’s letterforms were trimmed to the same weight as the hairline serifs, creating a brilliant sharpness and a dazzling contrast not seen before. Bodoni decided that the letters in a type font should be created through combinations of a very limited number of identical units. This standardization of forms that could be measured and constructed marked the death of calligraphy and writing as the wellspring for type design and the end of the imprecise cutting and casting of earlier type design. Bodoni’s precise, measurable, and repeatable forms expressed the vision and spirit of the machine age, foreshadowing the mass-production techniques soon to revolutionize Western society. In Bodoni’s page layouts, the borders and ornaments of his earlier decorative work were cast aside for an economy of form and efficiency of function. The severe purity of Bodoni’s late graphic-design style has affinities with twentieth-century functional typography. Open, simple page design with generous margins, wide letter- and line-spacing, and large areas of white space became his hallmark. Lightness was increased by using a smaller x-height and longer ascenders and descenders. Bodoni designed about three hundred type fonts and planned a monumental specimen book presenting this work. After his death, his widow and his foreman, Luigi Orsi, persisted with the project, and in 1818 published the two-volume Manuale Tipografico (Manual of Type) (Figs. 8–23 and 8–24). This monumental celebration of the aesthetics of letterforms and homage to Bodoni’s genius is a milestone in the history of graphic design.

Question 36

Francois Didot

Answer 36

• 1689-1757
• established a printing and bookselling firm in Paris in 1713, which evolved into a family dynasty of printers, publishers, papermakers, and typefounders.

Question 37

Francois-Ambroise Didot

Answer 37

• 1730-1804
• son of François Didot. In 1780 he introduced a highly finished, smooth paper of wove design modeled after the paper commissioned by Baskerville in England. The Didot type foundry’s constant experimentation led to maigre (thin) and gras (fat) type styles similar to the condensed and expanded fonts of our time. Around 1785 François-Ambroise Didot revised Fournier’s typographic measurement system and created the point system used in France today. Didot discarded the traditional nomenclature for various type sizes (Cicero, Petit-Romain, Gros-Text, and so on) and identified them with the measure of the metal type body in points (ten-point, twelve-point, and so on). The Didot system was adopted in Germany, where it was revised by Hermann Berthold in 1879 to work with the metric system. In 1886 the Didot system, revised to suit the English inch, was adopted as a standard point measure by American typefounders, and England adopted the point system in 1898. Fonts issued from 1775 by François-Ambroise Didot possessed a lighter, more geometric quality, similar in feeling to the evolution occurring in Bodoni’s designs under Baskerville’s influence. Bodoni and the Didots were rivals and kindred spirits. They shared common influences and the same cultural milieu. Their influence upon each other was reciprocal, for Bodoni and the Didots each attempted to push the modern style further than the other. In so doing, each pushed the aesthetics of contrast, mathematical construction, and neoclassical refinement to the ultimate level.

Question 38

Pierre Didot

Answer 38

• 1761-1853
• The older son of François-Ambroise Didot, he took charge of his father’s printing office. After the Revolution, the French government honored Pierre Didot by granting him the printing office formerly used by the Imprimerie Royale at the Louvre. There he gave the neoclassical revival of the Napoleonic era its graphic design expression in a series of Éditions du Louvre (Fig. 8–27). A year after the Manuale Tipograficoappeared, the 1819 Spécimen des nouveaux caractères … de P. Didot l’aîné (Specimens of New Characters … by P. Didot the Elder) was published in Paris.

Question 39

Firmin Didot

Answer 39

• 1764-1836
• The younger son of François-Ambroise Didot, he succeeded his father as head of the Didot type foundry. Firmin Didot’s modern typography is even more mechanical and precise than Bodoni’s. Firmin’s notable achievements included the invention of stereotyping. This process involves casting a duplicate of a relief printing surface by pressing a molding material (damp paper pulp, plaster, or clay) against it to make a matrix. Molten metal is poured into the matrix to form the duplicate printing plate. Stereotyping made longer press runs possible. The Didots used their new stereotyping process to produce much larger editions of economical books for a broader audience.

Question 40

William Blake

Answer 40

• 1757-1827
• a visionary English poet and artist who published books of his poetry in which each page was printed as a monochrome etching combining word and image. Blake and his wife either hand-colored each page with watercolor or printed colors, and hand-bound each copy in paper covers. The lyrical fantasy, glowing swirls of color, and imaginative vision that Blake achieved in his poetry and accompanying designs represent an effort to transcend the material of graphic design and printing to achieve spiritual expression. The 1789 title page from The Book of Thel(Fig. 8–30) shows how Blake integrated letterforms into illustrations. Blake was a harbinger of nineteenth-century romanticism. His bright colors and swirling organic forms are forerunners to expressionism, Art Nouveau, and abstract art.

Question 41

William Bulmer

Answer 41

• 1757-1830
• was chosen by publishers John and Josiah Boydell and George and W. Nicol to print, in nine volumes, The Dramatic Works of Shakespeare, 1792–1802. He also printed a series of volumes, including William Somerville’s The Chaseof 1796, in which the clean, spacious design of Bodoni and Didot was tempered by a traditional English legibility and warmth and used illustrations by his close friend Thomas Bewick.

Question 42

Thomas Bewick

Answer 42

• 1753-1828
• the father of wood engraving (Fig. 8–32). His “white-line” technique employed a fine graver to achieve delicate tonal effects by cutting across the grain on blocks of Turkish boxwood. Woodcuts were made by cutting with the grain on softer wood. Publication of his General History of Quadrupedsin 1790 brought renown to Bewick and his technique, which became a major illustration method in letterpress printing until the advent of photomechanical halftones nearly a century later.