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Psychology 111 > Chapter 7 Cognition > Flashcards

Chapter 7 Cognition Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the definition of thinking or cognition?

A
  • mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information-organizing it, understanding it, and communicating it to others
  • it includes memory but is so much more
  • it is images as well as words
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2
Q

what are mental images?

A
  • representations that stand in for objects or events and have a picture-like quality
  • one of the several tools used in the thought process
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3
Q

What is an example of using a mental image?

A
  • asking a person to say how many windows are in their house…they will create a mental image and walk through the house counting the windows
  • the island example–>it takes longer for the person to visualize items that are farther apart
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4
Q

Is making a mental image like looking at something?

A
  • no, it is almost the opposite.
  • areas of the cortex send info to the visual cortex where the image is perceived
  • PET scans show the visual cortex being activated while forming an image
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5
Q

what parts of the brain are utilized when creating a mental image?

A
  • same as visual perception: the cortex, temporal lobes, parietal lobes, and occipital lobes
  • the amount of activity is different between the two tasks
  • most similar in the frontal and parietal lobes
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6
Q

what are concepts?

A
  • ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities
  • used to think about objects or events without having to think about all the specific examples within the category
  • they allow us to communicate with each other
  • they allow us to identify new objects and events
  • can have very strict definitions, such as a square or circle
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7
Q

What concepts are defined by specific rules or features and are quite rigid?

A
  • formal concepts
  • there are a lot of them in math (triangles, squares, rectangles, polygons, and lines); in psychology (double-blind experiments, sleep stages, and conditioned stimuli)
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8
Q

What are concepts called if they do not fit the formal concept rule?

A
  • natural concepts–not the result of a strict set of rules but rather as the result of experiences with these concepts in the real world
  • e.g.–>vehicles, fruit
  • these concepts help people understand their surroundings in a less structured manner than school-taught formal concepts. and form the basis for interpreting those surroundings and events.
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9
Q

What are prototypes?

A
  • a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept.
  • they are the most basic examples of concepts
  • develops according to the exposure a person has to objects in that category (e.g. Apple in U.S; Coconut elsewhere)
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10
Q

How do concepts help us everyday?

A
  • with organization
  • with problem solving
  • with decision making
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11
Q

What are two different ways of organizing when using concepts?

A
  • schemas=mental generalizations about objects, places, events, and people
  • scripts=a kind of schema that involves a familiar sequences of activities
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12
Q

What is problem solving?

A
  • it occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways
  • it is one aspect of decision making
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13
Q

What is decision making?

A
  • identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives
  • there are several different ways to go about solving a problem
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14
Q

What are the ways of solving problems?

A
  • trial and error (mechanical solutions)
  • Algorithms
  • heuristics (representativeness heuristics, availability heuristics, working backward, subgoals)
  • Insight
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15
Q

What is Trial and Error (Mechanical Solutions)

A
  • -a method to solving problems that refers to trying one solution after another until finding one that works
  • can also involve solving by rote or a learned set of rules (e.g. work problems in grade school; Mathematical formulas called algorithms)
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16
Q

What are algorithms?

A
  • a specific, step-by-step procedure for solving certain types of problems
  • they always result in a correct solution, if there is a correct solution to be found, and you have enough time to find it
  • mathematical problems; library organization, systemic search algorithms in computer programs
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17
Q

What is a heuristic?

A
  • a way of narrowing down the possible solutions to only a few
  • a “rule of thumb”; a simple rule that is intended to apply to many situations
  • it is not specific and always leading to a solution like an algorithm
  • it is an educated guess based on prior experiences to help narrow down the possible solutions
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18
Q

What are the types of heuristics?

A
  • Representativeness heuristic
  • Availability Heuristic
  • Working backward
  • Subgoals
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19
Q

What is a Representativeness heuristic?

A
  • Judging the likelihood of something by comparing it to a prototype (idealized example) of that thing
  • used for categorizing objects and simply assumes that any object (or person) that shares characteristics with members of a particular category is also a member of that category
  • can cause errors due to ignoring base rates
  • can be used or misused to create and sustain stereotypes
  • e.g. racial profiling; the administrative assistant question; acquaintance rape; self-diagnosis; coin flip problem
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20
Q

What is helpful about a heuristic?

A

-it is faster than using an algorithm, but it does not always give the right answer like an algorithm does.

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21
Q

What is an availability heuristic?

A
  • Judging the likelihood/frequency of something based on its availability (access) in memory or How easily examples come to mind; The presence of a vivid example
  • e.g. words that begin with the Letter R or the letter R is the third letter question; Crime risks vs. health risks
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22
Q

What is the working backward heuristic?

A
  • working backward from a goal

- this is a useful heuristic that does work most of the time

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23
Q

What is the subgoals heuristic?

A
  • breaking the goal down into its parts

- e.g. writing a research paper; making diagrams; testing problems one by one

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24
Q

What is insight?

A
  • when a solution suddenly comes to mind

- seems like magic but it actually the mind reorganizing the problem, often while we are thinking about something else

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25
Q

When does solving a problem become difficult?

A
  • when the elements are not properly organized or when we get stuck in certain ways of thinking that acts as a barrier
  • often it is automatic
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26
Q

what are the three most common barriers to solving problems?

A
  • functional fixedness
  • mental sets
  • confirmation bias
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27
Q

what is functional fixedness?

A
  • a kind of mental set
  • thinking about objects only in terms of their typical uses
  • e.g. hunting for a screwdriver when other things could be used to tighten the screw
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28
Q

What are mental sets?

A

-the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past (people may even be hesitant to try something new or different)

29
Q

what is confirmation bias?

A
  • the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary
  • we quickly think of ways to confirm our believes but think more slowly to dis-confirm our beliefs
  • the looking at the cards problem—>only looked to prove, not disprove; the computer generated, which number comes next question
  • Moral:Looking only to confirm your ideas can lead to false beliefs that….have support, but are wrong
30
Q

what is creativity?

A
  • coming up with entirely new ways of looking at the problems by combing ideas or behavior in new ways
  • it is a type of thinking
31
Q

What is convergent thinking?

A
  • the logical method for problem solving where a problem is seen as having only one answer and all lines of thinking will eventually lead (converge on) that single answer by using previous knowledge and logic
  • useful for routine problem solving but may be of little use when a more creative solution is necessary
32
Q

what is divergent thinking?

A
  • the opposite of convergent thinking
  • a person starts at one point and comes up with many different, or divergent, ideas,or possibilities based on that point
  • attributed to not only creativity but also intelligence
33
Q

what are some characteristics of a creative, divergent thinker?

A
  • it tends to occur when people are doing automatic tasks or activities b/c the creative juice flows best at the level of consciousness just below alert awareness
  • less prone to some of the barriers to problem solving, such as functional fixedness
  • it can be developed
34
Q

What are ways to stimulate divergent thinking?

A

-brainstorming
-keeping a journal
-free-writing
mind or subject mapping

35
Q

What is often true about creative people?

A
  • usually have broad range of knowledge about a lot of subjects and are good at using mental imagery
  • aren’t afraid to be different
  • more open to new experiences
  • have vivid dreams and daydreams
  • value their independence
  • often unconventional in their work, but not otherwise
36
Q

how do psychologists define intelligence?

A
  • the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems
  • the characteristics that people need to survive in their culture
37
Q

how did Charles Spearman see intelligence?

A

-as two different abilities: the g factor and the s factor

38
Q

what is the g factor?

A

(Spearman)-general intelligence:the ability to reason and solve problems

39
Q

what is the s factor?

A

(Spearman)-specific intelligence: task-specific abilities in certain areas such as music, business, or art

40
Q

What is an IQ test considered? s or g factor?

A

g factor

41
Q

In what way did others disagree with Spearman?

A

-that he oversimplified intelligence

42
Q

What did Guilford in 1967 propose about intelligence?

A

that there were 120 types of intelligence

43
Q

who proposed the existence of several kinds of intelligence?

A

Howard Gardner in 1993

44
Q

What did Gardner believe about intelligence?

A
  • that reason, logic, and knowledge are different aspects of intelligence, along with several other abilities
  • he proposed nine (9) types of intelligence
45
Q

Is there support for Gardner’s theory of 9 types of intelligence?

A
  • Educators were very happy about the idea, but others argue that there are few studies to support it, and yet others believe that evidence exists to support it
  • some say that he is talking about abilities and not necessarily intelligence
46
Q

what are Gardners nine (9) types of intelligence?

A
  • verbal/linguistic
  • musical
  • logical/mathematical
  • visual/spatial
  • movement
  • interpersonal
  • intrapersonal
  • naturalist
  • existentialist
47
Q

What is Robert Sternberg’s theory about intelligence?

A

-the triarchic theory of intelligence
-that there are three kinds of intelligence:
analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

48
Q

what is analytical intelligence?

A
  • the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving
  • it is measured by intelligence tests and academic achievement tests
  • “book smarts”
49
Q

what is creative intelligence?

A
  • the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems (divergent thinking)
  • the ability to automatically process certain aspects of information, which frees up cognitive resources to deal with novelty
50
Q

what is practical intelligence?

A
  • best described as “street smarts”
  • the ability to use information to get along in life
  • people know how to be tactful, how to manipulate situations, and how to use inside information to their advantage
  • studies show that it predicts success in life but has a surprisingly low relationship to academic intelligence
51
Q

how has intelligence been measured?

A
  • Binet’s Mental Ability Test
  • standford-Binet creation of IQ
  • The Wechsler Tests
52
Q

What is the Binet mental ability test?

A
  • a formal test developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet
  • helped by Theodore Simon to develop the test
  • the key element was to test the child’s mental age (the average age at which children could successfully answer a particular level of questions)
53
Q

Who created the IQ score?

A

-Lewis Terman (German researcher from Standford Uni)

54
Q

How was IQ score developed and what does it consist of?

A
  • Terman used Stern’s method for comparing mental age with chronological age with the revised Binet test
  • formula is=dividing the mental age (MA) by the chronological age (CA) and multiplying by 100
  • IQ=MA/CAx100
55
Q

What is IQ?

A
  • intelligence quotient

- MA/CA x 100

56
Q

What are the benefits of IQ?

A

-allows comparison of people of different age groups

57
Q

What are the downfalls of IQ?

A
  • as a person chronologically ages, the test becomes meaningless (past the age of 16)
  • cultural bias
58
Q

What IQ tests are most often used today?

A
  • Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB5)

- Wechsler test

59
Q

Who uses the SB5 IQ test most often? At what age?

A
  • educators to make decisions about the placement of students into special educational programs
  • 7 or 8 years old
60
Q

What does the SB5 test estimate?

A
  • intelligence and verbal and nonverbal domain scores
  • five (5) primary areas of cognitive ability: Fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative processing, visual-spatial processing, and working memory
61
Q

What are the Wechsler tests?

A
  • devised by David Wechsler

- a series of tests designed for specific age groups including adults

62
Q

What are the three versions of Wechsler tests?

A
  • The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)
  • The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV)
  • The Wechsler preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-IV)
63
Q

What IQ test is used the most in the US?

A

-The Wechsler tests

64
Q

What is involved in the Wechsler IQ test?

A

-four (4) index scales that provide an overall score of intelligence and index scores related to four specific cognitive domains-verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed

65
Q

what is reliability?

A

-when the test produces inconsistent results each time it is given to the same individual or group of people.

66
Q

What is validity?

A
  • -the dregree to which a test actually measures what it is supposed to measure
  • or when a test does not measure what it is supposed to measure
67
Q

what is ecological validity?

A

-another aspect of validity that looks at the extent that an obtained score accurately reflects the intended skill or outcome in real-life situations

68
Q

What is standardization of tests?

A

-the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed

Psychology 111 (3 decks)

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