Chapter 7 Cognition Flashcards
What is the definition of thinking or cognition?
- mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information-organizing it, understanding it, and communicating it to others
- it includes memory but is so much more
- it is images as well as words
what are mental images?
- representations that stand in for objects or events and have a picture-like quality
- one of the several tools used in the thought process
What is an example of using a mental image?
- asking a person to say how many windows are in their house…they will create a mental image and walk through the house counting the windows
- the island example–>it takes longer for the person to visualize items that are farther apart
Is making a mental image like looking at something?
- no, it is almost the opposite.
- areas of the cortex send info to the visual cortex where the image is perceived
- PET scans show the visual cortex being activated while forming an image
what parts of the brain are utilized when creating a mental image?
- same as visual perception: the cortex, temporal lobes, parietal lobes, and occipital lobes
- the amount of activity is different between the two tasks
- most similar in the frontal and parietal lobes
what are concepts?
- ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities
- used to think about objects or events without having to think about all the specific examples within the category
- they allow us to communicate with each other
- they allow us to identify new objects and events
- can have very strict definitions, such as a square or circle
What concepts are defined by specific rules or features and are quite rigid?
- formal concepts
- there are a lot of them in math (triangles, squares, rectangles, polygons, and lines); in psychology (double-blind experiments, sleep stages, and conditioned stimuli)
What are concepts called if they do not fit the formal concept rule?
- natural concepts–not the result of a strict set of rules but rather as the result of experiences with these concepts in the real world
- e.g.–>vehicles, fruit
- these concepts help people understand their surroundings in a less structured manner than school-taught formal concepts. and form the basis for interpreting those surroundings and events.
What are prototypes?
- a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept.
- they are the most basic examples of concepts
- develops according to the exposure a person has to objects in that category (e.g. Apple in U.S; Coconut elsewhere)
How do concepts help us everyday?
- with organization
- with problem solving
- with decision making
What are two different ways of organizing when using concepts?
- schemas=mental generalizations about objects, places, events, and people
- scripts=a kind of schema that involves a familiar sequences of activities
What is problem solving?
- it occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways
- it is one aspect of decision making
What is decision making?
- identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives
- there are several different ways to go about solving a problem
What are the ways of solving problems?
- trial and error (mechanical solutions)
- Algorithms
- heuristics (representativeness heuristics, availability heuristics, working backward, subgoals)
- Insight
What is Trial and Error (Mechanical Solutions)
- -a method to solving problems that refers to trying one solution after another until finding one that works
- can also involve solving by rote or a learned set of rules (e.g. work problems in grade school; Mathematical formulas called algorithms)
What are algorithms?
- a specific, step-by-step procedure for solving certain types of problems
- they always result in a correct solution, if there is a correct solution to be found, and you have enough time to find it
- mathematical problems; library organization, systemic search algorithms in computer programs
What is a heuristic?
- a way of narrowing down the possible solutions to only a few
- a “rule of thumb”; a simple rule that is intended to apply to many situations
- it is not specific and always leading to a solution like an algorithm
- it is an educated guess based on prior experiences to help narrow down the possible solutions
What are the types of heuristics?
- Representativeness heuristic
- Availability Heuristic
- Working backward
- Subgoals
What is a Representativeness heuristic?
- Judging the likelihood of something by comparing it to a prototype (idealized example) of that thing
- used for categorizing objects and simply assumes that any object (or person) that shares characteristics with members of a particular category is also a member of that category
- can cause errors due to ignoring base rates
- can be used or misused to create and sustain stereotypes
- e.g. racial profiling; the administrative assistant question; acquaintance rape; self-diagnosis; coin flip problem
What is helpful about a heuristic?
-it is faster than using an algorithm, but it does not always give the right answer like an algorithm does.
What is an availability heuristic?
- Judging the likelihood/frequency of something based on its availability (access) in memory or How easily examples come to mind; The presence of a vivid example
- e.g. words that begin with the Letter R or the letter R is the third letter question; Crime risks vs. health risks
What is the working backward heuristic?
- working backward from a goal
- this is a useful heuristic that does work most of the time
What is the subgoals heuristic?
- breaking the goal down into its parts
- e.g. writing a research paper; making diagrams; testing problems one by one
What is insight?
- when a solution suddenly comes to mind
- seems like magic but it actually the mind reorganizing the problem, often while we are thinking about something else
When does solving a problem become difficult?
- when the elements are not properly organized or when we get stuck in certain ways of thinking that acts as a barrier
- often it is automatic
what are the three most common barriers to solving problems?
- functional fixedness
- mental sets
- confirmation bias
what is functional fixedness?
- a kind of mental set
- thinking about objects only in terms of their typical uses
- e.g. hunting for a screwdriver when other things could be used to tighten the screw
What are mental sets?
-the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past (people may even be hesitant to try something new or different)
what is confirmation bias?
- the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary
- we quickly think of ways to confirm our believes but think more slowly to dis-confirm our beliefs
- the looking at the cards problem—>only looked to prove, not disprove; the computer generated, which number comes next question
- Moral:Looking only to confirm your ideas can lead to false beliefs that….have support, but are wrong
what is creativity?
- coming up with entirely new ways of looking at the problems by combing ideas or behavior in new ways
- it is a type of thinking
What is convergent thinking?
- the logical method for problem solving where a problem is seen as having only one answer and all lines of thinking will eventually lead (converge on) that single answer by using previous knowledge and logic
- useful for routine problem solving but may be of little use when a more creative solution is necessary
what is divergent thinking?
- the opposite of convergent thinking
- a person starts at one point and comes up with many different, or divergent, ideas,or possibilities based on that point
- attributed to not only creativity but also intelligence
what are some characteristics of a creative, divergent thinker?
- it tends to occur when people are doing automatic tasks or activities b/c the creative juice flows best at the level of consciousness just below alert awareness
- less prone to some of the barriers to problem solving, such as functional fixedness
- it can be developed
What are ways to stimulate divergent thinking?
-brainstorming
-keeping a journal
-free-writing
mind or subject mapping
What is often true about creative people?
- usually have broad range of knowledge about a lot of subjects and are good at using mental imagery
- aren’t afraid to be different
- more open to new experiences
- have vivid dreams and daydreams
- value their independence
- often unconventional in their work, but not otherwise
how do psychologists define intelligence?
- the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems
- the characteristics that people need to survive in their culture
how did Charles Spearman see intelligence?
-as two different abilities: the g factor and the s factor
what is the g factor?
(Spearman)-general intelligence:the ability to reason and solve problems
what is the s factor?
(Spearman)-specific intelligence: task-specific abilities in certain areas such as music, business, or art
What is an IQ test considered? s or g factor?
g factor
In what way did others disagree with Spearman?
-that he oversimplified intelligence
What did Guilford in 1967 propose about intelligence?
that there were 120 types of intelligence
who proposed the existence of several kinds of intelligence?
Howard Gardner in 1993
What did Gardner believe about intelligence?
- that reason, logic, and knowledge are different aspects of intelligence, along with several other abilities
- he proposed nine (9) types of intelligence
Is there support for Gardner’s theory of 9 types of intelligence?
- Educators were very happy about the idea, but others argue that there are few studies to support it, and yet others believe that evidence exists to support it
- some say that he is talking about abilities and not necessarily intelligence
what are Gardners nine (9) types of intelligence?
- verbal/linguistic
- musical
- logical/mathematical
- visual/spatial
- movement
- interpersonal
- intrapersonal
- naturalist
- existentialist
What is Robert Sternberg’s theory about intelligence?
-the triarchic theory of intelligence
-that there are three kinds of intelligence:
analytical, creative, and practical intelligence
what is analytical intelligence?
- the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving
- it is measured by intelligence tests and academic achievement tests
- “book smarts”
what is creative intelligence?
- the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems (divergent thinking)
- the ability to automatically process certain aspects of information, which frees up cognitive resources to deal with novelty
what is practical intelligence?
- best described as “street smarts”
- the ability to use information to get along in life
- people know how to be tactful, how to manipulate situations, and how to use inside information to their advantage
- studies show that it predicts success in life but has a surprisingly low relationship to academic intelligence
how has intelligence been measured?
- Binet’s Mental Ability Test
- standford-Binet creation of IQ
- The Wechsler Tests
What is the Binet mental ability test?
- a formal test developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet
- helped by Theodore Simon to develop the test
- the key element was to test the child’s mental age (the average age at which children could successfully answer a particular level of questions)
Who created the IQ score?
-Lewis Terman (German researcher from Standford Uni)
How was IQ score developed and what does it consist of?
- Terman used Stern’s method for comparing mental age with chronological age with the revised Binet test
- formula is=dividing the mental age (MA) by the chronological age (CA) and multiplying by 100
- IQ=MA/CAx100
What is IQ?
- intelligence quotient
- MA/CA x 100
What are the benefits of IQ?
-allows comparison of people of different age groups
What are the downfalls of IQ?
- as a person chronologically ages, the test becomes meaningless (past the age of 16)
- cultural bias
What IQ tests are most often used today?
- Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB5)
- Wechsler test
Who uses the SB5 IQ test most often? At what age?
- educators to make decisions about the placement of students into special educational programs
- 7 or 8 years old
What does the SB5 test estimate?
- intelligence and verbal and nonverbal domain scores
- five (5) primary areas of cognitive ability: Fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative processing, visual-spatial processing, and working memory
What are the Wechsler tests?
- devised by David Wechsler
- a series of tests designed for specific age groups including adults
What are the three versions of Wechsler tests?
- The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)
- The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV)
- The Wechsler preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-IV)
What IQ test is used the most in the US?
-The Wechsler tests
What is involved in the Wechsler IQ test?
-four (4) index scales that provide an overall score of intelligence and index scores related to four specific cognitive domains-verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed
what is reliability?
-when the test produces inconsistent results each time it is given to the same individual or group of people.
What is validity?
- -the dregree to which a test actually measures what it is supposed to measure
- or when a test does not measure what it is supposed to measure
what is ecological validity?
-another aspect of validity that looks at the extent that an obtained score accurately reflects the intended skill or outcome in real-life situations
What is standardization of tests?
-the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed
