Chapter 7 and 8 Flashcards
Encoding
involves forming a memory code
Storage
involves maintaining encoded info in memory over time
Retrieval
involves recovering info from memory stores
Attention
involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events
Shallow processing is what encoding
structural encoding
Shallow processing
emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
Intermediate processing is what encoding
phonemic encoding
Intermediate processing
emphasizes what a word sounds like
Deep processing is what encoding
semantic encoding
Deep processing
emphasizes the meaning of verbal input through elaboration
In what order are the types of judgement most effective
Semantic, rhyme/phonemic, visual/structural
Levels of processing theory
proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes
NMDA receptor does what
encourages the flow of info from one neuron to another
NMDA receptors become activated when
the “sending” neuron releases glutamate and the “receiving” neuron excites
LTP is
long-term potentiation which results in enhanced neural processing
Visual imagery
the creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered, if it is easier for concrete objects, it is dual-coding theory
Elaboration
the linking of a stimulus to other info at the time of encoding
Dual-coding theory
holds that memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes since either can lead to recall
Self-referent encoding
making info personally meaningful
Sensory memory
preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually a fraction of a second
Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory storage
sensory input > sensory memory > attention > rehearsal of short-term memory > storage > long-term memory > retrieval back to short-term memory
STM
limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed info for up to about 20 seconds
Rehearsal
process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about info
Echoic memory
holding auditory info for 1-2 seconds
Iconic memory
holding visual memory for 1 second
Chunk
group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit
Working memory
modular system for temporary storage and manipulation of info
WMC
working memory capacity referring to one’s ability to hold and manipulate info in conscious attention
LTM
long-term memory is an unlimited capacity that can hold info over lengthy periods of time
Sperling’s sensory memory experiment in 1960
participants stared at a screen and rows of letters were flashed for 1/20th of a second and they were asked to repeat as many letters as possible, but when accompanied by a tone, they can remember more
Retrograde amnesia
no memories backward of injury (usually just of the event)
Anterograde amnesia
no memory forward after injury
Sensory memory is
a copy of input, has limited capacity and stores info for 1/4 second
STM is
largely phonemic, has a small capacity, and stores info for up to 20 seconds
LTM is
largely semantic, has no known capacity limit, ranges from minutes to years
Sensory inputs cause
sensory memory (unattended info is lost) > STM through attention (unrehearsed info is lost) > LTM through encoding (some info is lost over time through retrieval
Flashbulb memories
thought to be unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events
Order of report/recall in STM tests
starts with items most recent, then reports the first items through primacy, then in the middle
Conceptual hierarchy
multilevel classification system based on common properties among items
Schema
organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or even abstracted from previous experience with the object/event
Semantic network
consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts
Transfer-appropriate processing
trying to recall (frontal lobes) and actually recalling (hippocampus) are different
Cramming for exams is bad because
spaced practice is better than massed practice because the context at encoding is similar for all repetitions, but in spaced, the context will differ w/ each repetition
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach
LTM splits into
implicit and explicit memory
Explicit memory (conscious recall) splits into
semantic and episodic memory
Implicit memory (w/out conscious recall) splits into
procedural memory and priming
semantic memory : episodic memory
facts and general knowledge : personally experienced events
procedural memory : priming
motor and cognitive skills : enhanced identification of objects/words
Misinformation effect
when participants’ recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event info
Source-monitoring
process of making inferences about the origins of memories
Source-monitoring error
when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
forgetting is extremely rapid immediately after the original learning and then levels off
Retention
proportion of material retained
Decay theory
forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time
Retroactive interference
when new info impairs the retention of previously learned info
Proactive interference
when previously learned info interferes with the retention of new info
Implications for recovered memories
confidence in a memory doesn’t mean that it is real
LAD
language acquisition device is an innate mechanism/process that facilitates the learning of language
Behaviorist theory
BF Skinner argued that children learn language the same way they learn everything: through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning
Nativist theories
Humans have an inborn/native propensity to develop language
Interactionist theories
language development is because of biological neural development, cognitive development, and linguistic environment
deep : surface
meaning : wording
Linguistic relativity
one’s language determines the nature of one’s thought
0-4 mon.
can tell difference between speech sounds (phonemes)
4-6 mon.
babbles consonants
6-10 mon.
understands some words and simple requests
10-12 mon.
begins to use single words
12-18 mon.
vocab of 30-50 words
18-24 mon.
2 word phrases ordered according to syntactic rules; vocab of 50-200 words
24-36 mon.
vocab of 1,000 words, produces phrases and incomplete sentences
36-60 mon.
vocab grows to more than 10,000 words, production of full sentences and morphemes
Functional fixedness
tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use
Mental set
exists when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past
Insight
when people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it
Heuristic
guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in problem solving
Broca’s area
language production
Wernicke’s area
language comprehension
Damage to front part of left temporal lobe
difficulty to identifying humans
Damage to lower left temporal lobe
trouble identifying animals
Damage where temporal and occipital lobes meet
trouble naming tools
Incubation effect
when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of time non consciously thinking about the problem
Jim Greeno’s 3 classes of problems
problems of inducing structure (completion and analogy), problems of arrangement (string and anagrams), problems of transformation
Simon’s theory of bounded rationality
asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in irrational decisions
Availability heuristic
basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind (many people divorce because everyone I know is divorced)
Representativeness heuristic
basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event (this will happen because this happened in an event like this one)
Conjunction fallacy
when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone
IQ =
mental age/chronological age x 100
Prospect theory
people simplify available info and choose the prospect that offers the best personal value
Frequency format hypothesis
how often things occur, but how likely
Layperson’s conceptions of intelligence
verbal, practical, and social
identical twins reared apart are more similar than fraternal twins
shaped by heredity
Identical twins reared together are more similar than identical twins reared apart
shaped by environment
siblings reared together are more similar than siblings reared apart
shaped by environment
biological parents and the children they rear are more similar than unrelated people who are reared apart
heredity and environment
Adopted children show similarity to their biological parents and to their adoptive parents
heredity and environment
