Chapter 6 - Everyday Memory Flashcards
Memory
active any time some past experience has an effect on the way you think or behave now or in the future
Encoding
process by which information enters memory
Storage
process by which information is kept over time
Retrieval
process by which information from the past is accessed
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) - Modal Model of Memory
three different memory storages:
- sensory memory - initial stage that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second
- short term memory - holds 5 to 7 items for about 15 to 20 seconds
- long term memory - can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades
Craik & Lockhart (1972) - Levels of Processing Theory
memory performance depends on “depth” of encoding behavior
shallow processing: focus on features with little attention to meaning
deep processing: focus on meaning
Results of Craik and Lockhart (1975)
exposed subjects to words and focused on either visual features, acoustic features, or meaning
tested memory with recognition task
results: recognition improved with depth of processing, consistent with levels of processing theory
Nairne (2010) - Survival Value
thinking about information in terms of survival value increases its meaningfulness
encoding materials based on helpfulness for survival leads to better recall
Bower, Clark, Lesgold, and Winzenz (1969) - Hierarchical Organization
stimuli
- 4 different lists of word
- each list contained words from a different category
conditions
- saw words organized into taxonomic categories
unorganized
- saw words in random arrangement
results:
organized condition - recalled 90% of items by the 2nd trial
recalled 100% on the last two trials
unorganized condition - recall never exceeded 70%
organization of material aided memory performance
Types of Repetition
massed: repeated presentation that occur closely together in time
distributed: repeated presentation spread out over time
Spacing Effect
memory is better with spaced than massed repetition
greater variety of retrieval cues, more likely to be able to access information
Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) - Retrieval Cues
showed that all memory failures are not necessarily failures to encode
encoding phase:
categorized lists that contained two target words from each of 24 categories
retrieval phase: free recall followed by cued recall
results:
free recall - only 40% of words remembered
cued recall - now recalled 75% of words
Eich and Metcalf (1989) - State Dependent Learning
encoding
- played “merry” or “melancholic” music to subjects
- asked them to think of happy or depressing thoughts
- once mood induced, studied lists of words
retrieval
- induced same or opposite mood
- free recall of lists
results: better recall when encoding and retrieval moods matched
Roediger & Karpicke (2006) - Retrieval Testing Effect
subjects read two passages
re-read one of the passages
recalled information from other passage
tested on memory for passages at different points in time
short term: re-reading led to better memory
long term: being tested on the material led to better memory
retrieving information improves with practice
testing strengthens connections between information and retrieval cues
Generation Effect
generating materials yourself leads to better memory than passively receiving it
Brown and Kulik (1977) - Flashbulb Memories
asked people about JFK assassination that happened 13 years earlier
received very detailed recollections
proposed special mechanism:
- emotionally charged info
- biological/survival relevance
- special neural mechanism “prints” details of such events permanently in the memory system
people believe flashbulb memories, but data shows it is no more accurate or detailed
Neilson and Arentsen (2012) - Retrograde Memory Enhancement
subjects were students in cognitive psychology
three days of lectures on language
on second day, class randomly divided into two groups to watch videos after that lecture
low arousal: 3 minute video on cardiovascular health and depression
high arousal: 3 minute video of live-action oral surgery
better memory for that day of material preceding arousal video
Constructive Nature of Memory
memory = what happened + person’s knowledge, experiences, and expectations
Transience
normal forgetting over time
Absentmindness
lack of attention during encoding or retrieval
Blocking
items competing for retrieval
Source Misattribution
remember the information, misremember the source
Suggestibility
later information can change or alter how we remember an event
Bias
current experiences can alter or change what is remembered about the past
Persistence
automatic retrieval of memories that is not wanted or currently needed
Pickel (1999) - Weapon-Focus Effect
proposed two possible explanations for why a weapon effects memory:
- it poses a threat
- it is unexpected
Retroactive Interference
newer information affects retrieval of older information
Proactive Interference
older information affects retrieval of newer information
Misinformation Effect
misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how that person describes the event later
Why Does Misinformation Effect Occur?
retroactive interference
- more recent learning interferes with memory for something in the past
- original memory trace is not replaced, but it is not accessible because of more recent information
source monitoring error
- failure to distinguish the source of the information
- misleading post-event information is misattributed to the original source
