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Biomolecules CHM040 > Chapter 6: Carbohydrates > Flashcards

Chapter 6: Carbohydrates Flashcards

1
Q

Recent studies on cell surface carbohydrates has demonstrated an unusually high concentration of __ (IUPAC name __) on the surface of some cancer cells. It is a complex monosaccharide that is found on all our normal cells, as well. It is a signal that a cell is “__,” thereby protecting it from attack by our immune system. If certain cancer cells have an abundance of sialic acid on the surface, those cancer cells are essentially __ to the cells of our immune system that should attack and destroy them.

A
  • sialic acid
  • N-acetylneuraminic acid
  • self
  • invisible
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2
Q

How do medical researchers aim to make cancer cells more visible to the immune system?

A
  • Researchers attach the enzyme sialidase to an antibody that binds to cancer cells, facilitating the removal of sialic acid from the cell surface.
  • The enzyme sialidase, when attached to the antibody, clips away the sialic acid from the cancer cell surface, making them identifiable as foreign by the immune system.
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3
Q

__ are the most abundant class of bioorganic molecules on planet Earth. Although their abundance in the human body is relatively low, they constitute about __ by mass of dry plant materials.

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • 75%
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4
Q

Two major types of biochemical substances

A
  • bioinorganic substances (no carbon)
  • bioorganic substances (contains carbon)
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5
Q

Subtypes of bioinorganic substances and their abundance in the human body

A
  • water (70%)
  • inorganic salts (about 5%)
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6
Q

Subtypes of bioorganic substances and their abundance in the human body

A
  • Proteins (about 15%)
  • Lipids (about 8%)
  • Carbohydrates (about 2%)
  • Nucleic acids (about 2%)
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7
Q

Green (chlorophyll-containing) plants produce __ via photosynthesis.

A

carbohydrates

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8
Q

Formula of photosynthesis

A

CO2 + H20 + Solar energy –(chlorophyll/plant enzymes)–> carbohydrates +O2

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9
Q

Two main uses for the carbohydrates in plants:

A
  1. In the form of cellulose, carbohydrates serve as structural elements
  2. In the form of starch, they provide energy reserves for the plants
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10
Q

__ is a polymer of glucose, a sugar produced by the plant during photosynthesis, and used as a source of energy. It is stored as __ in structures called __.

A
  • Starch
  • grains/granules
  • amyloplasts
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11
Q

__ is the major carbohydrate source for humans and animals. The average human diet should ideally be about __ carbohydrate by mass.

A
  • Dietary intake of plant materials
  • two-thirds
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12
Q

Carbohydrates have the following functions in humans:

A
  1. Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy.
  2. short-term energy reserve
  3. supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of other biochemical substances
  4. genetic control of growth and development
  5. structural components of cell membranes.
  6. cell–cell and cell–molecule recognition processes.
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13
Q

carbohydrates that contribute to short-term energy reserve in the human body

A

carbohydrates stored in the form of glycogen

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14
Q

What is the primary function of carbohydrate oxidation in humans?

A

Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy, releasing approximately 4 kilocalories (kcal) of energy per gram when cells “burn” carbohydrates for fuel.

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15
Q

Besides energy, what do carbohydrates supply for the synthesis of other biochemical substances?

A

Carbohydrates supply carbon atoms necessary for the synthesis of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

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16
Q

carbohydrates that are involved in the genetic control of growth and development of living cells

A

ribose and deoxyribose

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17
Q

carbohydrates involved in the structure of cell membranes

A

Carbohydrates linked to lipids

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18
Q

carbohydrates involved in various cell–cell and cell–molecule recognition processes.

A

Carbohydrates linked to proteins

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19
Q

the basis for the term carbohydrate (“hydrate of carbon”)

A

Cn(H2O)n

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20
Q

Most simple carbohydrates have empirical formulas that fit the general formula __ which can be written as __

A
  • CnH2nOn
  • Cn(H2O)n
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21
Q

A carbohydrate is a __, a __, or a compound that yields __ or __ upon hydrolysis.

A
  • polyhydroxy aldehyde
  • polyhydroxy ketone
  • polyhydroxy aldehydes
  • polyhydroxy ketones
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22
Q

Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of __

A

molecular size

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23
Q

Types of carbohydrates

A
  1. Monosaccharide
  2. Disaccharide
  3. Oligosaccharide
  4. Polysaccharide
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24
Q
  • type of carbohydrate that contains a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit.
  • cannot be broken down into simpler units by __.
  • water-soluble, white, crystalline solids
A
  • Monosaccharides
  • hydrolysis reactions
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25
Q
  • type of carbohydrate that contains two monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other
  • crystalline, water-soluble substances.
A

Disaccharides

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26
Q

Hydrolysis of a disaccharide produces __.

A

two monosaccharide units

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27
Q

Give 2 examples of disaccharides

A
  • Sucrose (table sugar)
  • lactose (milk sugar)
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28
Q

type of carbohydrate that contains 3-10 monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other.

A

oligosaccharide

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29
Q
  • seldom encountered in biochemical systems.
  • usually found associated with proteins and lipids in complex molecules that have both structural and regulatory functions.
A

“Free” oligosaccharides

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30
Q

Complete hydrolysis of an oligosaccharide produces several __

A

monosaccharide molecules

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31
Q
  • a __ produces 3 monosaccharide units
  • a __ produces 6 monosaccharide units
A
  • trisaccharide
  • hexasaccharide
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32
Q

a polymeric carbohydrate that contains many monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other. The number of monosaccharide units present in a polysaccharide varies from a few hundred units to over 50,000 units.

A

polysaccharide

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33
Q

carbohydrates that undergo hydrolysis under appropriate conditions to produce monosaccharides

A
  • disaccharides
  • oligosaccharides
  • polysaccharides
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34
Q

The prefixes __ and __ found in the complete name of a monosaccharide are used to identify one of two possible isomeric forms called __.

A
    • D- ; L-
  • stereoisomers
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35
Q

By definition, each member of a pair of stereoisomers must have the same molecular formula and the same bonding pattern; D- and L- differ in the __ in the molecule.

A

spatial arrangements of atoms

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36
Q

A carbon atom that has four different groups bonded to it

A

chiral carbon

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37
Q

Any molecule containing a chiral carbon is a __ and will exist as a pair of __.

A
  • chiral molecule
  • enantiomers
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38
Q

images that coincide at all points when the images are laid upon each other.

A

Superimposable mirror images

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39
Q

images where not all points coincide when the images are laid upon each other.

A

Nonsuperimposable mirror images

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40
Q

Different responses are usually observed for right-handed and left-handed forms of a molecule, and our bodies typically use only _____ of the two forms of a chiral compound.

A

one

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41
Q

What are the three possible scenarios regarding the biological activity of the two forms of a chiral compound?

A
  • Sometimes both forms are biologically active, each form giving a different response;
  • Sometimes both elicit the same response, but one form’s response is many times greater than that of the other; and
  • Sometimes only one of the two forms is biochemically active.
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42
Q

How many stereoisomeric forms can a compound with n chiral centers have, according to the general rule?

A

a maximum of 2^n stereoisomeric forms

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43
Q

When three chiral centers are present, how many stereoisomers are possible?

A

At most, eight stereoisomers are possible (2^3 = 8), forming four pairs of enantiomers.

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44
Q

isomers in which atoms have different connectivity

A

constitutional isomers

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45
Q

three types of constitutional isomers

A
  • skeletal
  • positional
  • functional group isomers
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46
Q

isomers with different carbon atom arrangements and different hydrogen arrangements

A

skeletal isomer

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47
Q

isomers that differ in the location of the functional group

A

positional isomer

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48
Q

isomers that contain different functional groups

A

functional group isomers

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49
Q

isomers with atoms of the same connectivity that differ only in the orientation of the atoms in space

A

stereoisomers

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50
Q

types and subtypes of stereoisomers

A
  • enantiomers
  • diastereoisomers
    –> cis-trans isomers
    –> Most other diastereoisomers (two or more chiral centers)
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51
Q
  • stereoisomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other
  • Handedness (D and L forms) is determined by the configuration at the highest-numbered chiral center.
A

enantiomers

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52
Q

stereoisomerism that results from restricted rotation of chemical bonds
- sometimes possible when a ring is present
- sometimes possible when a double bond is present

A

cis-trans isomers

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53
Q

What is the characteristic feature of an optically active compound?

A

rotates the plane of polarized light

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54
Q

How does the plane-polarized light setup work?

A
  1. Begin with a sodium lamp emitting unpolarized light.
  2. Use a polaroid filter to create plane-polarized light.
  3. Shine the light through a tube with an enantiomer solution.
  4. Place a second polaroid filter (analyzer) after the tube.
  5. Rotate the second filter to observe changes in light intensity, demonstrating how enantiomers interact with plane-polarized light.
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55
Q

a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a clockwise direction.

A

dextrorotatory compound

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56
Q

a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a counterclockwise direction

A

levorotatory compound

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57
Q

Why do enantiomers share the same boiling points, melting points, and densities?

A

These physical properties are not influenced by chirality, as they depend on intermolecular forces, which remain identical for enantiomers.

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58
Q

How do enantiomers’ solubilities in achiral and chiral solvents differ?

A
  • same solubility = achiral solvents (e.g. ethanol)
  • different solubilities = chiral solvents (e.g. d-2-butanol)
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59
Q

What influences the rate and extent of reaction for enantiomers with another reactant?

A

achiral reactant = same rate and extent of reaction
chiral reactant = different rate and extent of reaction

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60
Q

Why do enantiomers generate different responses in the human body?

A

Receptor sites in the body have associated chirality. Enantiomers consistently produce varied responses when interacting with these sites, ranging from slight to very different responses.

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61
Q

The response of the body to the D isomer of the hormone is __ than its response to the L isomer of the hormone.

A

20 times greater

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62
Q

Classification of monosaccharides based on the type of carbonyl group

A
  • aldose
  • ketose
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63
Q

a monosaccharide that contains an aldehyde functional group.

A

aldose

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64
Q

aldoses are

A

polyhydroxy aldehydes.

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65
Q

a monosaccharide that contains a ketone functional group.

A

ketose

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66
Q

ketoses are

A

polyhydroxy ketones

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67
Q

How are monosaccharides typically classified?

A

according to:
- number of carbon atoms
- their functional group

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68
Q

classification for an aldose with 3 carbons

A

aldotriose

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69
Q

classification for a ketose with 6 carbons

A

ketohexose

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70
Q

Which two trioses are essential intermediates in glycolysis?

A

The simplest trioses:
- D-Glyceraldehyde (chiral molecule)
- dihydroxyacetone (achiral molecule)

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71
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

A
  • D-Glyceraldehyde and Dihydroxyacetone (glycolysis)
  • D-Glucose and D-Galactose
  • D-Fructose
  • D-Ribose
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72
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharide
* Found in high amounts in ripe fruits
* Blood sugar
* Also called dextrose

A

D-Glucose

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73
Q

D-Glucose is also called

A

dextrose

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74
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharide
* seldom encountered as a free monosaccharide

A

D-Galactose

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75
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharide
* Synthesized from glucose in the body for the production of lactose (a disaccharide of glucose and galactose)

A

D-Galactose

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76
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharide
* called brain sugar because it is a component of glycoproteins found in brain and nerve tissue

A

D-Galactose

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77
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharide
* also present in the chemical markers that distinguish various types of blood—A, B, AB, and O

A

D-Galactose

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78
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharide
* biochemically the most important
ketohexose.

A

D-Fructose

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79
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharide
- also known as levulose and fruit sugar

A

D-Fructose

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80
Q

D-Fructose is also known as

A
  • levulose
  • fruit sugar
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81
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides
* sweetest-tasting of all sugars
* found in many fruits and is present in honey in equal amounts with glucose
* used as a dietary sugar because less is needed for the same amount of sweetness

A

D-Fructose

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82
Q

Biochemically Important Monosaccharide
* 5-carbon sugar (pentose)
* Component of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and energy-rich compounds such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

A

D-Ribose

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83
Q

What distinguishes the structures of D-Glucose and D-Ribose?

A

number of carbon atoms

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84
Q

How do the structures of D-Fructose and D-Glucose differ?

A
  • D-Glucose has an aldehyde functional group
  • D-Fructose has a ketone functional group.
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85
Q

What is the structural consequence for monosaccharides with five or more carbon atoms?

A

they exist in equilibrium between open-chain and cyclic structures

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86
Q

Why are cyclic structures dominant in the equilibrium of monosaccharides?

A

intramolecular reaction between the carbonyl group (C=O) and a hydroxyl group (-OH), forming cyclic hemiacetals

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87
Q

The cyclic hemiacetal forms of D-Glucose result from the intermolecular reaction between the carbonyl group and the hydroxyl group on Carbon 5. How many enantiomers are made and what is the basis in naming them?

A
  • 2 enantiomers
  • depends on how ring closure occurs
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88
Q

In the cyclic hemiacetal forms of monosaccharides, what name is given when the -OH group in Carbon 5 is above? Below?

A

-b (beta)-
- a (alpha)-

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89
Q

Although monosaccharides exist mostly in cyclic forms, a small amount of the open-chain form is always present, which provides an __ – this with an adjacent hydroxyl can be oxidized to a __ by an oxidizing agent.

A
  • aldehyde group
  • carboxylic acid
90
Q

aldoses act as reducing agents in such reactions, they are called __.

A
  • reducing sugars
91
Q

Primary alcohol (oxidation) –> aldehyde
Aldehyde (reduction) –> primary alcohol
Aldehyde (oxidation) –> __

A
  • carboxylic acid
92
Q

Oxidation of primary alcohol leads to

A
  • aldehyde
93
Q

Reduction of aldehyde results to

A
  • primary alcohol
94
Q

What oxidize/s the aldehyde end of an aldose to give an aldonic acid?

A
  • Tollens and Benedict’s solutions
95
Q

What does the oxidation of aldehyde end of an aldose give?

A
  • aldonic acid
96
Q

A solution when glucose reduces Ag+ ion to Ag

A
  • Tollens Solution
97
Q

A solution when glucose reduces Cu2+ ion to Cu+ ion

A
  • Benedict’s Solution
98
Q

In a Benedict’s solution, what happens when glucose is present (Positive reaction)? What will happen if there’s no presence of glucose?

A
  • a brick-red precipitate with reducing sugars (because of Cu2O)
  • Blue
99
Q

Under the basic conditions associated with Tollens and Benedict’s solutions, ketoses are also__. In this situation, the ketose undergoes a __ that produces an aldose, and the aldose then reacts. Thus, all monosaccharides, both aldoses and ketoses, are__.

A
  • reducing sugars
  • structural rearrangement
  • reducing sugars
100
Q

__ can oxidize both ends of a monosaccharide at the same time (the carbonyl group and the terminal primary alcohol group) to produce a__. Such polyhydroxy dicarboxylic acids are known as __.

A
  • Strong oxidizing agents
  • dicarboxylic acid
  • aldaric acids
101
Q

Although it is difficult to do in the laboratory, in biochemical systems __ can oxidize the primary alcohol end of an aldose such as glucose, without oxidation of the aldehyde group, to produce an__.

A
  • enzymes
  • alduronic acid
101
Q

The carbonyl group present in a monosaccharide (either an aldose or a ketose) can be reduced to a hydroxyl group, using __ as the reducing agent. Such polyhydroxy alcohols are called__. These alcohols are used as moisturizing agents in foods and cosmetics because of their affinity for water.

A
  • hydrogen
  • sugar alcohols or alditols
102
Q

D-sorbitol have properties similar to those of the __ and also used as a sweetening agent

A
  • trihydroxy alcohol glycerol
103
Q

D-Sorbitol in our __ are metabolized by bacteria. People who are sensitive to D-Sorbitol (absorb it poorly) will have it undigested. A bacterial by-product of such bacterial action is large amounts of __, which causes major discomfort.

A
  • large intestines
  • intestinal gas
104
Q

A __ is an acetal formed from a cyclic monosaccharide by replacement of the hemiacetal carbon -OH group with an -OR group. More specifically, a glycoside produced from glucose is called a glucoside, that from galactose is called a __, and so on.

A
  • glycoside
  • galactoside
104
Q

__, formed from phosphoric acid and various monosaccharides, are commonly encountered in biochemical systems.

A
  • Phosphate esters
105
Q

Specific enzymes in the human body catalyze the esterification of the hemiacetal group (carbon 1) produces __

A
  • glucose 1-phosphate
105
Q

Specific enzymes in the human body catalyze the esterification of the primary alcohol group (carbon 6) in glucose to produce __

A
  • glucose 6-phosphate
106
Q

These phosphate esters of glucose are stable in aqueous solution and play important roles in the metabolism of carbohydrates. (phosphate ester formation of monosaccharides)

A
  • glucose 1-phosphate
  • glucose 6-phosphate
107
Q

Amino sugars and their N-acetyl derivatives are important building blocks of polysaccharides found in __ and__. The N-acetyl derivatives of D-glucosamine and D-galactosamine are present in the __ on red blood cells, which distinguish the various__.

A
  • chitin
  • hyaluronic acid
  • biochemical markers
  • blood types
108
Q

Derivatives of Monosaccharides

A
  • Acidic sugars (obtained by oxidation)
  • Sugar alcohols (obtained by reduction)
  • Glycosides (reaction with an alcohol)
  • Phosphate esters
  • Amino sugars
109
Q

Acidic sugar with an acid group on top

A
  • aldonic acid (e.g. D-Gluconic acid)
110
Q

Acidic sugar with an acid group on bottom

A
  • alduronic acid (e.g. D-Glucuronic acid)
110
Q

Acidic sugar with acid groups on both top and bottom

A
  • aldaric acid (e.g. D-Glucaric acid)
111
Q

Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides joined through an “__.”

A
  • oxygen bridge
112
Q

the bond between two monosaccharides resulting from the reaction between the hemiacetal carbon atom -OH group of one monosaccharide and an -OH group on the other monosaccharide.

A
  • glycosidic linkage
113
Q

Monosaccharide (functioning as __) + monosaccharice (functioning as __)  disaccharide + H2O

A
  • hemiacetal
  • alcohol
113
Q

In biological systems, we commonly see only particular disaccharides, such as__, __, or__. These specific disaccharides are produced in cells because the reactions are catalyzed by enzymes.

A
  • maltose
  • lactose
  • sucrose
114
Q

A disaccharide that is often called malt sugar (malt=germinated barley that has been baked and ground; contains this disaccharide)

A
  • Maltose
115
Q

A disaccharide that is produced whenever the polysaccharide starch breaks down

A
  • Maltose
116
Q

A disaccharide that is made up of two D-glucose units, one of which must be α-D-glucose

A
  • α(1→4) linkage
  • Maltose
117
Q

Three forms of maltose present in aqueous solution.

A
  • α-Maltose
  • β-Maltose
  • Open-chain aldehyde form
118
Q

In the hydrolysis of D-maltose, whether in a laboratory flask or in a living organism, it produces__. An acidic environment (H+) or the __ is needed for the hydrolysis to occur.

A
  • two molecules of D-glucose
  • enzyme maltase
119
Q

__, the enzyme that breaks the glucose–glucose α(1→4) linkage present in maltose, is found both in the human body and in yeast. Consequently, maltose is __ easily by humans and is readily __ by yeast.

A
  • Maltase
  • digested
  • fermented
120
Q

Biochemically Important Disaccharides
It is an intermediate in the hydrolysis of the polysaccharide cellulose.

A
  • Cellobiose
121
Q

Like maltose, cellobiose contains two D-glucose monosaccharide units. Differs from maltose in that one of the d-glucose units—the one functioning as a hemiacetal—must have a __ instead of the __ * β(1→4) linkage

A
  • β configuration
  • α configuration (maltose)
122
Q

Like maltose, cellobiose is a __, has __ in aqueous solution, and upon hydrolysis produces__.

A
  • reducing sugar
  • three isomeric forms
  • two D-glucose molecules
123
Q

Both the human body and yeast lack the enzyme __ needed to break the glucose–glucose __ of cellobiose. Thus, cellobiose cannot be digested by humans or fermented by yeast.

A
  • cellobiase
  • β(1→4) linkage
124
Q

A biochemically important disaccharide that the major sugar found in milk.

A
  • Lactose
125
Q

Lactose is made up of a __ and a __ joined by a __ glycosidic linkage. The glucose hemiacetal center is unaffected when galactose bonds to glucose in the formation of lactose, so lactose is a __ (the glucose ring can open to give an aldehyde)

A
  • β-D-galactose unit
  • D-glucose unit
  • β(1→4) linkage
  • reducing sugar
126
Q

Lactose can be hydrolyzed by __ or by the enzyme__, forming an equimolar mixture of __ and__.

A
  • acid
  • lactase
  • galactose
  • glucose
127
Q

In the human body, the galactose so produced is then converted to __ by other enzymes.

A
  • glucose
128
Q

a condition in which people lack the enzyme lactase; lowest among Scandinavians and other northern Europeans and highest among native North Americans, Southeast Asians, Africans, and Greeks. 60% of adults (the majority) are lactose intolerant.

There are no milk-drinking adult animals; only baby animals drink milk.

A
  • lactose intolerance
129
Q

When lactose molecules remain in the intestine undigested, they __ to themselves, causing fullness, discomfort, cramping, nausea, and diarrhea.

A
  • attract water
130
Q

Bacterial fermentation of the lactose further along the intestinal tract produces __ and__, adding to the discomfort.

A
  • acid (lactic acid)
  • gas
131
Q

A biochemically important disaccharide that is a common table sugar and the most abundant of all disaccharides and occurs throughout the plant kingdom.

A
  • sucrose
132
Q

A biochemically important disaccharide that has a α-D-glucose and β-F-fructose in an α,β(1→2) glycosidic linkage

A
  • sucrose
133
Q

Sucrose, unlike maltose, cellobiose, and lactose, is a __; the hemiacetal center (anomeric carbon atom) of each monosaccharide is involved in the __.

A
  • nonreducing sugar
  • glycosidic linkage
134
Q

A biochemically important disaccharide exists in only one form—there are no α and β isomers, and an open-chain form is not possible.

A

Sucrose

135
Q

Hydrolysis of sucrose formula

A

D-Sucrose + H2O –H+ or sucrase–> D-glucose + D-fructose (invert sugar)

136
Q

When sucrose is cooked with acid-containing foods such as fruits or berries, partial hydrolysis takes place, forming some __. Jams and jellies prepared in this manner are actually sweeter than the pure sucrose

A
  • invert sugar
137
Q

artificial sweeteners and sugar substitutes

A
  • saccharin
  • aspartame
  • sucralose
138
Q

Honeybees and many other insects posses an enzyme called __ that hydrolyses sucrose to invert sugar. Thus, honey is predominantly a mixture of __ and __ with some unhydrolyzed __.

A
  • invertase
  • D-glucose
  • D-fructose
  • sucrose
139
Q

The term “invert” sugar comes from the observation that the __ changes from __ (clockwise) to __ (counterclockwise) when sucrose is hydrolyzed to invert sugar.

A
  • direction of plane-polarized light
  • positive
  • negative
140
Q

For sucrose, the rotation is __

A

66+ degrees

141
Q

The net rotation for invert sugar mixture of fructose? glucose?

A
  • -93 degrees
  • -+52 degrees =-40 derees
141
Q

cleavage of glycosidic linkage releases the __. Water particles from the reaction by supplying an H atom to one monosaccharide (the one that retains the O atom of the glycosidic linkage) and supplying an -OH group entity to other monosaccharides

A

two monosaccharides

142
Q

Two naturally occurring oligosaccharides found in onions, cabbage, broccoli, brussel sprouts, whole wheat, and all types of beans are the __ and the __.

A
  • trisaccharide raffinose
  • tetrasaccharide stachyose
142
Q
  • carbohydrates that contain three to ten monosaccharide units.
A
  • Oligosaccharides
143
Q

Humans lack the digestive enzymes necessary to metabolize either __ or __. Hence these oligosaccharides, when ingested in food, pass undigested into the large intestine, where bacteria act upon them. This bacterial action usually produces __ and __.

A
  • raffinose
  • stachyose
  • discomfort
  • flatulence (gas).
144
Q

Many plants, including the potato plant, produce toxins as a defense against insects and predators. __ is the potato plant’s toxin. Its amounts in potatoes increase when potatoes __ and when they are __ (__).

A
  • Solanine
  • sprout
  • exposed to sunlight (green coloration)
145
Q

the presence of an underlying green color in the skin of potatoes denotes the presence of

A

chlorophyll (green pigment) and solanine (toxin)

146
Q

Oligosaccharides: Blood Type
Carbohydrates present in Blood type O

A
  • 2 Galactose
  • N-acetylglucosamine
  • Fructose (end)
147
Q

Oligosaccharides: Blood Type
Carbohydrates present in Blood Type A

A
  • 2 Galactose
  • N-acetylglucosamine
  • Fructose (end)
  • N-Acetylgalactosamine (end)
148
Q

Oligosaccharides: Blood Type
Carbohydrates present in Blood Type B

A
  • 3 Galactose
  • N-acetylglucosamine
  • 1 Fructose (end)
149
Q

What blood type is called the universal donor? universal acceptor?

A
  • Blood Type O
  • Blood Type AB
150
Q

Donor Blood Type is A, what recipient blood types are compatible?

A

A and O

151
Q

Donor Blood Type is B, what recipient blood types are compatible?

A

B and O

152
Q

Donor Blood Type is AB, what recipient blood types are compatible?

A

AB

153
Q

Donor Blood Type is O, what recipient blood types are compatible?

A

A, B, AB, O

154
Q

an alternate name for a polysaccharide.

A

Glycan

155
Q

Important parameters that distinguish various polysaccharides (or glycans) from each other are:

A
  1. The identity of the monosaccharide repeating unit(s) in the polymer chain. (homopolysaccharide and heteropolysaccharide)
  2. The length of the polymer chain. (from less than a hundred monomer units to over 50,000 monomer units.)
  3. As with disaccharides, the type of glycosidic linkage between monomer units.
  4. The degree of branching of the polymer chain.
156
Q

a polysaccharide in which only one type of monosaccharide monomer is present.

A

homopolysaccharide

157
Q

a polysaccharide in which more than one (usually two) type of monosaccharide monomer is present.

A

heteropolysaccharide

158
Q

a polysaccharide that is a storage form for monosaccharides and is used as an energy source in cells.

A

storage polysaccharide

159
Q

present in the amylopectin structure at each branch point

A

α (1->6) linkage

160
Q

has a structure similar to that of amylopectin; all glycosidic linkages are of the a type, and both (1→4) and (1→6) linkages are present.

A

glycogen

161
Q

__ and __ differ in the number of glucose units between branches and in the total number of glucose units present in a molecule. __ is about three times more highly branched than __, and it is much larger, with up to 1,000,000 __ units present.

A
  • Glycogen
  • amylopectin
  • Glycogen
  • amylopectin
  • glucose
162
Q

an ideal storage form for glucose. The large size of these macromolecules prevents them from diffusing out of cells.

A

glycogen

163
Q

glucose –> glycogen

A

glycogenesis

164
Q

glycogen –> glucose

A

glycogenolysis

165
Q

Cellulose
Source:
Subunit:
Bonds:
Branches:
Diagram:
Shape:

A
  • plant
  • β-glucose
  • 1-4
  • None
  • alternating monosaccharide units (upside down)
  • fibrous structure (called microfibrils)
166
Q

starch-amylose
Source:
Subunit:
Bonds:
Branches:
Diagram:
Shape:

A
  • plant
  • α-glucose
  • 1-4
  • None
  • repeating units of monosaccharide
  • spiral
167
Q

starch-amylopectin
Source:
Subunit:
Bonds:
Branches:
Diagram:
Shape:

A
  • plant
  • α-glucose
  • 1-4 and 1-6
  • Yes (~per 20 subunits)
  • repeating units of monosaccharides with branches
  • Complexly branched and dendritic
168
Q

glycogen
Source:
Subunit:
Bonds:
Branches:
Diagram:
Shape:

A
  • animals
  • α-glucose
  • 1-4 and 1-6
  • Yes (~per 10 subunits)
  • repeating units of monosaccharides with more branches
  • more Complexly branched and dendritic
169
Q

the structural component of plant cell walls

A

cellulose

170
Q

__ is the most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide; high concentrations can be found in the __

A
  • cellulose
  • “woody” portions of plants—stems, stalks, and trunks
171
Q

almost pure cellulose (95%)

A

cotton

172
Q

percentage of cellulose in wood

A

50%

173
Q

The linear (straight-chain) cellulose molecules, when aligned side by side, become water insoluble fibers because of __ involving the numerous __ present.

A
  • inter-chain hydrogen bonding
  • hydroxyl groups
174
Q

the second most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide.

A

chitin

175
Q

A polysaccharide that gives rigidity to the exoskeletons of crabs, lobsters, shrimp, insects, and other arthropods, in the cell walls of fungi

A

chitin

176
Q

Chitin is a polysaccharide that is a polymer of the amino sugar __, a monosaccharide found in blood-type oligosaccharide

A

N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (NAG)

177
Q

types of glycosidic linkages for common glucose-containing Di- and Polysaccharides

A
  • α (1->4) linakge
  • α (1->4) and (1->6) linkages
  • β (1->4) linkage
  • α ,β (1–>2) linkage
178
Q

2 examples of carbohydrates with α (1->4) linkage

A
  • maltose (glucose-glucose)
  • amylose (unbranched glucose polymer, form of starch)
179
Q

2 examples of carbohydrates with α (1->4) and (1->6) linkages

A
  • amylopectin (branched glucose polymer, form of starch)
  • glycogen (highly branded glucose polymer)
180
Q

3 examples of carbohydrates with β (1->4) linkages

A
  • lactose (galactose-glucose)
  • cellobiose (glucose-glucose)
  • cellulose (unbranched glucose polymer)
181
Q

An example of a carbohydrate with α,β (1–>2) linkage

A

sucrose (glucose-sucrose)

182
Q

a polysaccharide with a disaccharide repeating unit in which one of the disaccharide components is an amino sugar and one or both disaccharide components has a negative charge due to a sulfate group or a carboxyl group.

A

acidic polysaccharide

183
Q

An acidic polysaccharide is a polysaccharide with a disaccharide repeating unit in which one of the disaccharide components is an __ and one or both disaccharide components has a negative charge due to a __ or a __.

A
  • amino sugar
  • sulfate group
  • carboxyl group
184
Q

acidic polysaccharides are __; two different monosaccharides are present in an alternating pattern.

A

heteropolysaccharides

185
Q

Two of the most well-known acidic polysaccharides are __ and __, both of which have unbranched-chain structures

A
  • hyaluronic acid
  • heparin
186
Q

An acidic polysaccharide that contains alternating residues of N-acetyl-β-D-glucosamine (NAG; the monomer of chitin) and D-glucuronate.

A

hyaluronic acid

187
Q

An acidic polysaccharide that is highly viscous; serve as lubricants in the fluid of joints

A

hyaluronic acid

188
Q

An acidic polysaccharide associated with the jelly-like consistency of the vitreous humor of the eye.

A

hyaluronic acid

189
Q

The Greek word __ means “glass” means hyaluronic acid solutions have a __ appearance.

A
  • hyalos
  • glass-like
190
Q

a small highly sulfated polysaccharide (acidic) with only 15–90 disaccharide residues per chain.

A

Heparin

191
Q

The monosaccharides present in heparin’s disaccharide repeating unit are a sulfate derivative of D-glucuronate (__) and a doubly sulfated derivative of d-glucosamine (__). Both of these monosaccharide derivatives contain two negatively charged acidic groups.

A
  • D-glucuronate-2 sulfate
  • N-sulfo-D-glucosamine-6-sulfate
192
Q

Heparin is a __. It is naturally present in mast cells and is released at the site of tissue injury. ◀ It prevents the formation of clots in the blood and retards the growth of existing clots within the blood. It does not, however, break down clots that have already formed.

A
  • blood anticoagulant
193
Q

Pharmaceutical-grade heparin is applied as an anticoagulant to the interior/exterior surface of external objects that come in contact with blood (test tubes, kidney dialysis machine surfaces, prosthetic implant materials) to prevent the blood from __. The source for pharmaceutical heparin is the __ or __ of slaughterhouse animals (pigs and cows).

A
  • clotting
  • intestinal
  • lung tissue
194
Q

a dietary monosaccharide or dietary disaccharide; are usually sweet to the taste and are commonly referred to as sugars

A

simple carbohydrates

195
Q

two types of simple carbohydrates

A
  • natural sugar
  • refined sugar
196
Q

a type of simple carbohydrate that is naturally present in whole foods. Give 2 important sources

A

natural sugar
- milk
- fresh fruit

197
Q

a type of simple carbohydrate that has been separated from its plant source. Give 2 major sources

A

refined sugar
- sugar beets
- sugar cane

198
Q

A type of simple carbohydrate is often said to provide empty calories because it provides energy but few other nutrients.

A

refined sugar

199
Q

a type of simple carbohydrate that is accompanied by nutrients.

A

natural sugar

200
Q

A tablespoon of sucrose (table sugar, refined) provides __ of energy just as a small orange does. The small orange (natural sugar), however, also supplies __, __, __, and __; table sugar provides no other nutrients.

A
  • 50 calories
  • vitamin C
  • potassium
  • calcium
  • fiber
201
Q

a dietary polysaccharide.

A

complex carbohydrate

202
Q

The main complex carbohydrates are __ and __, substances not generally sweet to the taste.

A
  • starch
  • cellulose
203
Q

It is now known that mono-, di-, and oligosaccharides attached through glycosidic linkages to lipid molecules (__) and protein molecules (__) have a wide range of biochemical functions, including allowing cells to interact with invading bacteria and viruses and enabling cells of differing function to recognize each other.

A
  • glycolipids
  • glycoproteins
204
Q

a lipid molecule that has one or more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units covalently bonded to it.

A

glycolipid

205
Q

a protein molecule that has one or more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units covalently bonded to it.

A

glycoprotein

206
Q

Glycolipids called __ and __ occur extensively in brain tissue

A
  • cerebrosides
  • gangliosides
207
Q

Glycoproteins called __ are key components of the body’s immune system response to invading foreign materials

A

immunoglobins

208
Q

5 types of antibodies

A
  • IgA
  • IgD
  • IgE
  • IgG
  • IgM
209
Q

Y-shaped proteins that recognize unique markers (antigens) on pathogens

A

antibodies or immunoglobulins (Ig)

210
Q

type of antibody:
- secreted into mucous, saliva, tears, and colostrum.
- Tags pathogens for destruction

A

IgA

211
Q

type of antibody:
- a B-cell receptor
- Stimulates release of IgM

A

IgD

212
Q

type of antibody:
- binds mast cells and basophils
- Allergy and antiparasitic activity

A

IgE

213
Q

type of antibody:
- bonds to phagocytes
- Main blood antibody for secondary responses.
- Crosses placenta

A

IgG

214
Q

type of antibody:
- fixes complement. - maintain antibody of primary responses
- B-cell receptor
- Immune system memory

A

IgM

Biomolecules CHM040 (12 decks)

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