Chapter 6 Flashcards
Classical conditioning
Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (eg a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (eg food) that naturally produces a behaviour. After the association is learned, the previously neutral stimulus is sufficient to produce the behaviour.
Key issues of classical conditioning is that is dependent on responses that are more or less automatically produced.
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Something, such as food, that triggers a naturally occurring response.
Unconditioned response (UR)
Naturally occurring response, such as salivation, that follows the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the conditioned stimulus.
The sound of the tone was the CS in Pavlov’s experiment.
Extinction
Refers to the reduction in responding that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery
The increase in responding to the CS following a pause after extinction.
Although the behaviour can disappear, extinction is never complete If conditioning is attempted again, the animal will learn the new associations much faster than it did the first time.
Generalization
Refers to the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus.
Ability to generalize has evolutionary significance. If we eat red berries that make us sick, we will think twice before we eat purple berries.
Discrimination
The flip side of generalization.
The tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar, but not identical.
Second-order, or higher-order conditioning
When an existing conditioned stimulus can serve as an unconditioned stimulus for a pairing with a new conditioned stimulus.
When Pavlov paired a black square repeatedly with the sound. Eventually, the dogs would salivate at the black square alone.
Phobia
A strong and irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation. When someone has a phobia about driving, the driving is the CS (conditioned stimulus) that creates the fear response.
People are evolutionary prepared to learn associations about being bitten by a snake, or falling from a tree over other, less scary ones (high locations, and open spaces).
PTSD
A severe anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to a fearful event, such as the threat of death.
Operant conditioning
Learning that occurs based on consequences of behaviour, and can involve learning new actions.
Organism learns the consequences of its own actions.
Eg. dog rolls over on command because it has been praised for doing so in past.
Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Behaviour - Thorndike and Skinner
Thorndike observed cats placed in a “puzzle box” try to and escape and be rewarded with fish. At first, they scratched a bit, and eventually through multiple attempts, they attempted fewer ineffective responses before carrying out the successful escape - positive reinforcement.
After several trials, the cat learned to almost immediately make the correct response.
Law of Effect
The principle that responses that create a typically pleasant outcome in a situation are more likely to occur again in a similar situation.
On the contrary, responses that produce an unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur again.
Operant chambers (Skinner boxes)
A structure big enough to fit a rodent or bird and that contains a bar that the organism can press or peck to release food or water. Also contains a device to record the animal’s responses.
Eventually, like the cat boxes, the rats learned to press the food bar almost immediately.
Reinforcer
Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behaviour.
Punishment
Any event that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.
More likely to create temp changes in behaviour because it is based on coercion and creates a - relationship with the person providing the reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement
Strengthens a response by presenting something pleasant after the response.
Eg. Giving a child praise for completing their homework. Creates a + relationship with the person providing the reinforcement.
Reinforcements, + or -, work to increase the likelihood of behaviour.
Negative reinforcements
Strengthens a response by reducing or removing something unpleasant.
Eg. Doing up your car’s seatbelt to eliminate the annoying warning sound.
Eg. Closing the fridge door so it doesn’t beep
Reinforcements, + or -, work to increase the likelihood of behaviour.
Positive punishment
Weakens a response by presenting something unpleasant after the response.
Eg. a child who is grounded after fighting with a sibling.
Negative punishment
Weakens a response by reducing or removing something pleasant.
Eg. a student who loses out on the opportunity to go to recess after getting a poor grade.
They are less likely to repeat those behaviours.
Continuous reinforcement schedule
The desired response is reinforced every time it occurs.
Eg. When the dog rolls over, it gets a treat.
Results in relatively fast results, but also in rapid extinction of the behaviour once the reinforcer disappears. The organism is used to receiving the reinforcement after every behaviour, the responder may give up quickly when it does not appear.
Partial/intermittent reinforcement schedule
A schedule where the responses are sometimes reinforced and sometimes not.
This leads to slower initial learning, but they also lead to greater resistance to extinction.
Fixed-interval schedule
Reinforcement occurs for the first response made after a specific amount of time has passed.
Eg. An animal receiving a treat at every one-minute fixed-interval. Animals under this schedule tend to slow down their responding immediately after the reinforcement, but then increase the behaviour again as the time of the next reinforcement gets closer.
Variable-interval schedule
Reinforcers appear on an interval schedule, but the timing is varied around the average interval, making the actual appearance of the reinforcer unpredictable.
Eg. Checking your email every 30 min, but the reinforcement comes only randomly. This type of schedule tends to produce slow and steady rates of responding.
Fixed-ratio schedule
Behaviour is reinforced after a specific number of responses.
Eg. rat’s behaviour may be reinforced after it has pressed the key 20 times.
Eg. a salesperson may receive a bonus after they have sold 20 products.
Once the organism has learned to act in accordance with the fixed-ratio schedule, it will pause only briefly when reinforcement occurs before returning to a high level of responsiveness.
Variable-ratio schedule
Provides reinforcers after a specific, but average number of responses.
Eg. winning money from a slot machine or lottery ticket.
Ratio schedules tend to produce high rates of responding, because reinforcement increases as the number of responses increases.
Shaping
The process of guiding an organism’s behaviour to the desired outcome through the use of successive approximation to a final desired behaviour.
Eg. Skinner made use of this procedure in his boxes. At first, he could train the rat to touch the bar, and eventually he trained the rat to press the bar twice to receive the food. This can take a long time, but this way of operant conditioning can create chains of behaviour that are reinforced only when they are completed.
Primary reinforcer
Includes stimuli that are naturally preferred or enjoyed by the organism, such as water, and relief from pain.
Secondary reinforcer/conditioned reinforcer
A neutral event that has become associated with a primary reinforcer through classical conditioning.
Eg. We enjoy having money, not so much for the stimulus itself, but rather for the primary reinforcers with which it is associated, that is to say, for the things that money can buy.
Insight
The sudden understanding of a solution to a problem.
Kohler observed what happened when he presented chimpanzees with a problem that was not easy to solve - placing food in an area that was too high in the cage to be reached.
After the trial and error period, they seemed to stop and contemplate on how to solve the problem—a stick to knock it down, or a chair.
Latent learning
Learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so.
Observational learning (modelling)
Learning through observation of others.
Both aggression and altruism can be learned through observation.
Classical conditioning in advertising
An enjoyable ad serves as the unconditioned stimulus (US), and the enjoyment is the unconditioned response (UR).
Because the product advertised is mentioned, it becomes associated with the US, and then it becomes the CS.
Behaviour Modification
The components of operant conditioning can be put together to systematically change behaviour in real life.
Eg. insomnia, toilet training, comm skills for those with autism, social skills, time management, eliminating bad habits.
Behaviours can be added, eliminated, or modified by changing the environment that produces the behaviours as well as the consequences of behaviour.
Before attempting to change behaviour - observe and identify what behaviour is occurring, when, where, how often, etc.
Environment = maintainers of behaviour.
Programmed instruction
An educational tool that consists of self-teaching with the aid of a specialized textbook or teaching machine that presents material in a logical sequence (Skinner)
Allows students to progress through a unit at their own rate, checking answers, and advancing only if answering correctly.
Reinforcement can be effective in education, but there are substantial limitations to using reward to improve learning. Students are sometimes awarded rewards when their learning does not warrant it, and then these rewards become meaningless.
Children may also perform the activity for the reward only, and not their own self-interest. When rewards offered too often, the task becomes less appealing.
Operational Definition
A description of something in terms of the operations that can be observed and measured.
Eg. Operation definition of anxiety could be in terms of a test score, withdraws from situations, or activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
