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A&P Test 2 > Chapter 6 > Flashcards

Chapter 6 Flashcards

1
Q

Skeletal cartilage: what are the different types and where are they found?

A

Made up of some variety of cartilage tissue sculpted to fit its body location and function.

Different types: Hyaline (articular cartilages, costal, respiratory, nasal), elastic (found only in external ear and epiglottis), fibrocartilages (found in menisci of knee and the discs between vertebrae).

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2
Q

Perichondrium

A

Perichondrium is a dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds cartilage. Perichondrium acts as reinforcement to resist outward expansion when cartilage is compressed. It also contains blood vessels that nourish the cartilage cells.

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3
Q

Photo: The bones and cartilage of human skeleton - what are the 3 types of cartilage and where can they be found? Take note of axial and appendicular regions.

A
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4
Q

What are the 2 ways cartilage grows, and how do they work?

A

Appositional growth - Growth from the outside.
Cartilage-forming cells in the surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix against the external face of the existing cartilage tissue.
Growth in WIDTH

Interstitial growth- Growth from within.
Chondrocytes within secrete matrix from within the lacunae.
Increases in LENGTH
Makes cartilage more dense.

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5
Q

What are the 7 functions of bones?

A

Support
Protection
Movement
Mineral and growth factor storage
Blood cell formation
Triglyceride (fat) storage
Hormone production

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6
Q

What are the 2 bone groups, based on location?

A

Axial - Skull, vertebral column, rib cage

Appendicular - bones of upper and lower limbs; girdles attaching limbs to axial skeleton.

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7
Q

4 Shapes of bone classification

A

Long bones
Short bones
Flat bones
Irregular bones

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8
Q

Photo: Classification of bones on the basis of shape

A
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9
Q

Compact bone

A

Every bone has a dense outer layer of bone that looks smooth and solid.

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10
Q

Spongy bone

A

Internal to the compact bone is spongy bone, a honeycomb of small needle-like or flat pieces called trabeculae. These open spaces are filled with red and yellow bone marrow.

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11
Q

Explain the structure of short irregular and flat bones

A

Consist of short plates of spongy bone (diploe) covered by a thin layer of compact bone.

The compact bone is sandwiched between connective tissue membranes: Periosteum covers outside of compact bone; endosteum covers inside of compact bone.

Spongy bone has no defined marrow cavity, bone marrow is just scattered throughout it.

Hyaline cartilage covers area of bone that is part of a movable joint.

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12
Q

What is the structure of a typical long bone?

A

All long bones have a shaft(diaphysis), bone ends(epiphyses) and membranes.

Between the diaphysis and epiphyses is the epiphyseal line. This line is a remnant of the epiphyseal plate (where bone growth occurs).

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13
Q

Diaphysis

A

Bone shaft

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14
Q

Epiphyses

A

Bone ends

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15
Q

Photo: the structure of a long bone* Know this

A
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16
Q

Photo: structure of a long bone close up *know this

A
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17
Q

Periosteum membrane

A

The periosteum membrane is a double-layered membrane that covers the external surface of the entire bone except for the joint surfaces. The periosteum membrane’s outer fibrous layer is made of dense irregular connective tissue. It’s inner osteogenic layer contains osteoprogenitor cells, osteoclasts and osteoblasts.
Fibrous layer (Sharpey’s fibers)

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18
Q

*Endosteum

A

The endosteum is a delicate connective tissue membrane that covers the internal bone surfaces. The endosteum contains the same cell types as the inner layer of the periosteum.

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19
Q

Hematopoietic tissue in bones

A

Red marrow is found in the trabecular cavities of spongy bone and the diploe of flat bones.

In adults red marrow is located in the heads of the femur and humerus, but the most active areas of hematopoiesis are flat bone diploe and some irregular bones.

Yellow marrow can be convert to red if someone becomes anemic.

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20
Q

Photo: Humerus of arm

A
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21
Q

What are bone markings and what are their 3 types?

A

Bone markings are the sights of muscle, ligament and tendon attachments on the external surface of bones.

Bone markings are areas involved in joint location or conduits for blood vessels and nerves.

Projections
Depressions
Opening

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22
Q

Photo: Bone projections

A
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23
Q

Photo: More bone markings

A
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24
Q

List the 5 major cell types of the bone and explain what each one does.

A
  • Osteogenic cells - mitotically active stem cells found in periosteum and endosteum.
  • Osteoblasts - bone-forming cells that secrete the bone matrix.
  • Osteocytes - mature bone cells that occupy spaces (lacunae) and monitor/maintain the bone matrix.
  • Bone-lining cells - Thought to maintain the matrix on the bone surfaces.
  • Osteoclasts - Located on sites of bone reabsorption. Osteoclasts can actively reabsorb and break down bone.
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25
Q

What does compact bone consist of?

A

Compact bone consists of:
- Osteons
- Canals and canniculi
- Interstitial and circumferential lamellae

26
Q

Photo: a single osteon know

A
27
Q

Photo: anatomy of a compact bone know

A
28
Q

Spongy bone

A

Spongy bone is organized along lines of stress in order to help bones resist any stress. Trabaculae confer strength to the bone (like cables on suspension bridge).
Trabaculae contain irregularly arranged lamallae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi.
Capillaries in endosteum of spongy bone supply nutrients.

29
Q

Organic components of bone

A

Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, bone-lining cells, osteoclasts, and osteoid.

30
Q

Osteoid

A

Makes up 1/3 of organic bone matrix, and is secreted by osteoblasts. Osteoids consist of ground substance and collagen fibers which contribute to the high tensile strength and flexibility of bone.

31
Q

Ossification

A

Ossification is the process of bone tissue formation. Bony skeleton begins developing at 2 months. Postnatal growth continues until early adulthood.
Bone remodeling and repair are lifetime.

32
Q

Endochondrial ossification

A

All bones below the base of the skull form by endochondrial ossification.
Endochondrial ossification uses hyaline cartilage “bones” for bone construction. The hyaline cartilage is broken down during ossification.

33
Q

5 main steps in process of endochondrial ossification:

A
  1. A bone collar forms around the diaphysis of the cartilage model.
  2. Central cartilage in the diaphysis calcifies, then develops cavities.
  3. A periosteal bud invades the cavities, leading to the formation of spongy bone.
  4. The diaphysis elongates and the medullary cavity forms. (2nd ossification centers appear in epiphyses.)
  5. The epiphyses ossify. Hyaline cartilage appears only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages.
34
Q

** Photo: endochondrial ossification of a long bone **

A
35
Q

Intramembranous ossification (of flat bones)

A

The intramembranous ossification of a flat bone begins in the fibrous connective tissue membranes formed by mesenchymal cells.

Intramembranous ossification forms frontal, parietal occipital, temporal and clavicle bones.

36
Q

4 major steps of Intramembranous ossification

A
  1. The ossification centers are formed when mesenchymal cells cluster and become osteoblasts.
  2. The osteoid is secreted and then calcified.
  3. Woven bone is formed when the osteoid is laid down around blood vessels, resulting in trabeculae. The outer layer of woven bone forms the periosteum.
  4. Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, and red marrow appears.
37
Q

Photo: Intramembranous ossification

A
38
Q

Postnatal bone growth

A

Long bones grow lengthwise by interstitial growth.
Bones increase in thickness (width) through appositional growth.
Bones stop growing during adolescence.

39
Q

Growth in length of bones (Interstitial growth)

A

Interstitial growth requires the presence of epiphyseal cartilage in the epiphyseal plate.
The rate of cartilage growth on one side of the plate is balanced by bone replacement on the other side.

40
Q

What are the 5 zones of the epiphyseal plate?

What happens in each zone?

A
  1. Resting zone
  2. Proliferation zone - cartilage cells undergo mitosis
  3. Hypertrophic zone - older cartilage cells enlarge
  4. Calcification zone - the matrix calcifies; old cartilage cells die; matrix begins deteriorating; blood vessels invade the cavity.
  5. Ossification zone - new bone forms
41
Q

Epiphyseal plate closure occurs when…

A

Epiphysis and diaphysis fuse.

42
Q

Bone growth in width (Appositional growth)

A

Growing bones widen as they lengthen through appositional growth.
Bones thicken as they respond to increased stress from muscle activity or added weight.
Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum secrete bone matrix on the external bone.
Osteoclasts remove bone on the endeosteal surface.
There’s more building up than breaking down of bone which leads to thicker stronger bone that is not too heavy.

43
Q

Photo: Long bone growth and remodeling during youth.

A
44
Q

Hormonal regulation of bone growth…

A

The growth hormone is the most important hormone in stimulating epiphyseal plate activity.

The thyroid hormone modulates the activity of the growth hormone, ensuring proper proportions.

Testosterone and Estrogen at puberty promote adolescent growth spurts.

45
Q

Bone Remodeling

A

Bone remodeling consists of both bone deposit and bone reabsorption.

Bone remodeling occurs at the surfaces of both the periosteum and endosteum.

Packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts coordinate the remodeling process.

46
Q

Bone Deposit

A

New bone matrix is deposited by osteoblasts.
The osteoid seam is a band of unmineralized bone matrix that marks the area of new matrix.
The calcification front is an abrupt transition zone between the osteoid seam and the older mineralized bone.

47
Q

Bone reabsorption: what cells are responsible for it and what do they do? What activates these cells?

A

Reabsorption is a function of osteoclasts.
Osteoclasts dig depressions or grooves as they break down matrix.
Osteoclasts secrete lysosomal enzymes and protons that digest matrix.
Acidity converts calcium salts to soluble forms.
Once reabsorption is complete osteoclasts undergo apoptosis.
Osteoclast activation involves the parathyroid hormone and immune T cell proteins.

48
Q

Remodeling is regulated by 2 control loops. What are they?

A
  1. Hormonal controls:
    - Parathyroid hormone
    - Calcitonin
    - Leptin
    - Serotonin
  2. Response to mechanical stress
49
Q

Photo: calcium homeostasis of blood

A
50
Q

Photo: bone anatomy and bending stress

A
51
Q

What does Wolf’s Law explain?

A
  • Handedness results in thicker and stronger bone of the corresponding upper limb.
  • Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle.
  • Trabaculae form trusses along lines of stress.
  • Large bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach.
  • Bones of the fetus and bedridden people are featureless because of lack of stress on bones.
52
Q

What are the 3 categories of fractures and their subcategories?

A

A. The position of bone ends after fracture:
1. Nondisplaced: the ends retain normal position.
2. Displaced: ends are out of normal alignment.
B. The completeness of break:
1. Complete: broken all the way through.
2. Incomplete
C. Whether skin is penetrated…
1. Open (compound)
2. Closed: skin is not penetrated.

53
Q

Photo: Common types of fractures

A
54
Q

Photo: Common types of fractures (2)

A
55
Q

Photo: Common types of fractures (3)

A
56
Q

Fracture treatment and repair

A
  1. Reduction is the realignment of broken bone ends.
  2. Closed reduction is when a physician manipulates the bones to correct the position.
  3. Open reduction is when surgical pins or wires secure bone ends.
  4. Immobilization of the bone by cast or traction is needed for healing sometimes.
57
Q

What are the 4 major stages of bone repair?

A
  1. Hematoma formation
  2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
  3. Bony callus formation
  4. Bone remodeling
58
Q

Photo: Hematoma formation

A
59
Q

Photo: Fibrocartilaginous callus forms

A
60
Q

Photo: Bony callus forms

A

A&P Test 2 (3 decks)

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