Chapter 5 - Vineyard Establishment

Question 1

Why is vineyard establishment considered hugely important?

Answer 1

1. Many of the decisions made and processes carried out during this time are difficult to rectify once the vineyard has been planted
2. Compromises or lack of planning at this stage, due either to cost or time, may result in problems later in the life of the vineyard
3. A detailed site assessment should be carried out to determine the suitability of the land
4. Many options described within Nutrient Management, Water Management and Canopy Management will also be considered and planned at this time
   (Page 57)

Question 2

What site characteristics are ideal for high volume, inexpensive or mid-priced wines?

Answer 2

1. Flat, fertile site in a warm, dry climate
2. Fertile soils and plentiful warmth (plus the option of irrigation) may mean high yields of grapes can be ripened adequately
3. The dry climate may reduce the incidence of fungal diseases, which in turn could save money on fungicide spraying and grape sorting
4. Flat land also allows for mechanisation, which can be quicker and cheaper, especially for large vineyards
   (Page 57)

Question 3

What site characteristics are sought for premium or super-premium wines?

Answer 3

1. Obtaining healthy grapes of the optimum composition (considering levels of sugar, acidity, colour, tannins and aroma compounds) for the style being made will be a priority
2. In cool climates, sites that will maximise potential to ripen the grapes, such as those with aspects that will receive most sunshine throughout the day
3. In warm climates, relatively cool sites, such as those at high altitude or those exposed to cooling sea breezes
   (Page 57)

Question 4

What logistical, legal and cost factors need to be considered when selecting a vineyard site?

Answer 4

1. The price of the land itself within desirable geographical indications (GIs) is much more expensive than land that simply qualifies for wine of that country or region
2. The location, layout and topography of the site may have cost implications
3. Steep slopes can be unsuitable for mechanisation and labour can be expensive, slow-paced and hard to attain in some regions
4. If the vineyard will require irrigation, the source of irrigation water and its cost will need to be considered
5. Ease of access to the vineyard site and distance from the winery should also be considered
6. Proximity of the vineyard and winery to towns and cities for labour, supplies, cellar door customers, retail or distribution businesses may also be a key factor
   (Pages 57-58)

Question 5

How is terroir defined in the text?

Answer 5

1. The French word terroir comes from the word terre meaning ‘land’
2. It is an overarching concept which claims that the distinctiveness of quality wines is due to their sense of place
3. A precise and agreed definition of terroir does not exist
4. A common issue is that people often use the term terroir without first defining what they mean
   (Page 58)

Question 6

What are the different interpretations of terroir discussed in the text?

Answer 6

1. A sense of place: a wine shows characteristics that relate to the particular place in which the grapes are grown – climate, soil, aspect, elevation
2. Some commentators include human interventions in the concept of terroir; for example, where French PDOs stipulate planting density, type of trellising and so on in their regulations
3. Especially for marketing purposes, wines may claim to be directly influenced by the geological make-up of the soil
   (Pages 58-59)

Question 7

What perspectives exist about the connection between soil geology and wine taste?

Answer 7

1. Marketing perspective: the claim that the perceived chalkiness of the taste of Chardonnay is attributable to the vines being grown in chalky soils
2. Scientific perspective: This direct connection is strongly contested by the scientific community. It notes that photosynthesis is the primary driver of vine growth, that all aroma compounds are synthesised in the vine and that grape must is further transformed through the process of fermentation
   (Page 59)

Question 8

What do many commentators believe about winemaking practices and terroir?

Answer 8

1. Many commentators believe that overly zealous winemaking practices can obscure terroir
2. For example, picking over-ripe fruit and ageing wines in new oak can mask their inherent character, the terroir expression of a wine
   (Page 59)

Question 9

How has the concept of terroir evolved globally?

Answer 9

1. While terroir has been strongly associated with French and then other classic European wines (e.g. Mosel), winemakers around the world are now showing an interest in the different expressions of wines made from grapes in single vineyards or specific locations
2. This is being strengthened through the use of soil mapping technology (see Precision Viticulture)
   (Page 59)

Question 10

What factors does the grape grower need to assess during soil preparation?

Answer 10

1. The drainage and structure of the soil
2. Its mineral composition
3. The presence of pests or unwanted plants
4. In some cases, the topography of the vineyard may be modified
   (Page 59)

Question 11

Why is soil structure important for vineyards?

Answer 11

1. The structure of the soil has a significant influence on root penetration, water drainage, nutrient holding capacity and workability
2. Soil structures that negatively affect these factors may need to be resolved
   (Page 59)

Question 12

What techniques are used to improve soil structure during vineyard preparation?

Answer 12

1. Very large rocks at or near the surface may be removed
2. If the land has previously been used for agriculture, a plough pan (an impervious layer of soil) may have formed from years of ploughing at the same depth. This may need breaking down (a process called subsoiling)
3. This process promotes better drainage and makes the soil easier to cultivate once the vineyard has been established
4. Ploughing (turning over the surface layer of the soil and burying it) incorporates additions into the soil
   (Page 59)

Question 13

What issues need to be addressed during soil preparation?

Answer 13

1. If vines or other crops have been uprooted to plant new vines, it is important to ensure old roots are removed. The roots must be burnt as they can otherwise harbour disease
2. If weeds are a particular problem on the site, it may be advisable to use systemic herbicides at this point
3. Farmyard manure, compost and fertilisers may also be applied to increase the levels of nutrients and organic matter of the soil
4. If soil pH needs adjusting this is also an opportune time to rectify it. For acidic soils, such as those found in Beaujolais, lime (a calcium-based substance) can be spread on the soil and then ploughed in
   (Pages 59-60)

Question 14

What extreme modifications might be needed for vineyard establishment?

Answer 14

1. In extreme cases, substantial and costly landscaping work may be required to dramatically change the natural topography of the site in order to make viticulture viable
2. In regions with steep slopes, such as the Douro Valley, terraces may be constructed to provide flat land on which to plant vines
   (Page 60)

Question 15

What key decisions regarding planting materials must a grape grower make?

Answer 15

1. The grape variety
2. Its clone
3. If grafting onto a rootstock, which rootstock to use
   (Page 60)

Question 16

How many grape varieties are in commercial use, and what characteristics are relevant?

Answer 16

1. There are over one thousand grape varieties in commercial use, each with their own specific set of characteristics
2. Although the consumer may be mainly concerned with the aroma/flavour properties of the grape variety, the grape grower also needs to consider the factors listed below
   (Page 60)

Question 17

How can grape varieties be more or less adapted to their climate?

Answer 17

1. Time of budding – Early budding grape varieties, such as Chardonnay, are more at risk from spring frost damage compared to late budding varieties, such as Riesling
2. Duration of annual life-cycle – Early ripening grape varieties, such as Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, are best suited to cool climates; Late ripening grape varieties, such as Mourvèdre, are better suited to warm and hot climates
3. Tolerance of drought – Grape varieties that are able to withstand a high level of water stress, such as Grenache, can be the best option in dry climates
4. Resistance to disease – Some grape varieties are less susceptible to fungal diseases; Cabernet Sauvignon is less susceptible to grey rot than Merlot
5. Winter hardiness – Some grape varieties, such as Vidal and Riesling, are relatively tolerant of very cold winter temperatures
6. Vigour – If high vigour grape varieties, such as Sauvignon Blanc, are grown on fertile soils with plentiful water, it is likely that their vigour will need managing to avoid excessive shoot growth
   (Pages 60-61)

Question 18

Why might early ripening varieties be problematic in warm climates?

Answer 18

1. Early ripening varieties in these climates would gain sugar and lose acidity too rapidly, resulting in unbalanced wines
   (Page 60)

Question 19

Apart from climate adaptation, what factors influence grape variety choice?

Answer 19

1. Style of wine – The characteristics of the grapes should be consistent with the style of wine that the producer wants to make
2. Yield – High yielding grape varieties (e.g. Grenache) or clones allow the production of higher yields
3. Cost – Some grape varieties are more difficult, and therefore more expensive, to grow
4. Law – In many EU countries, wine legislation restricts what grape varieties can be planted
5. Availability – In some wine regions there is a large range of choices, in others certain grape varieties or clones may not be available or be sold out due to high demand
6. Market demand – Fashions for particular grape varieties or styles of wine can clearly be seen in today’s market place
   (Page 61)

Question 20

What example is given about grape varieties for specific wine styles?

Answer 20

1. A producer wanting to make a low tannin, fruity red for early drinking is more likely to choose Gamay or Grenache than Nebbiolo or Aglianico
   (Page 61)

Question 21

What example is given for legal restrictions on grape varieties?

Answer 21

1. A wine labelled Prosecco in the EU must be made predominantly from Glera
   (Page 61)

Question 22

What is head grafting or top grafting, and what are its benefits and disadvantages?

Answer 22

1. Definition: Cut the original vine at the trunk and graft a bud from a new grape variety on top
2. Benefit: With an established root system, the new grape variety can produce fruit suitable for wine much more quickly than a brand-new planting
3. Disadvantage: The rootstock will have been selected based on the characteristics of the original grape variety, and may not be equally suited to the new grape variety
   (Page 62)

Question 23

What is the relationship between clone choice and grape variety?

Answer 23

1. If the grape grower buys young vines from a nursery, there may be a choice of clones for some or all grape varieties
2. Many of the factors detailed in Grape Varieties also apply to the choice of clone, though this is less impactful than choice of grape variety and much less affected by legislation and consumer popularity
   (Page 62)

Question 24

What is the main reason for grafting vines onto rootstocks?

Answer 24

1. The vast majority of grapevines are grafted onto rootstocks. The main reason for grafting is to protect the vine from phylloxera
2. However, a range of different rootstocks exist with varying characteristics
3. The characteristics of a rootstock are usually linked to its parentage, and many rootstocks are hybrids of two different vine species in order to take advantage of some of the characteristics of both species
   (Page 62)

Question 25

What criteria might a grape grower consider when choosing a rootstock?

Answer 25

1. Pests – As well as being tolerant of phylloxera, some rootstocks are also tolerant of root-knot nematodes
2. Water – Rootstocks that are hybrids of V. rupestris and V. berlandieri, such as 110R or 140R, are highly tolerant of drought; Rootstocks based on V. riparia, such as Riparia Gloire, are tolerant of water-logged soil
3. Soil pH – Rootstocks can also help alleviate problems caused by soils that have very low or high pH; 99R and 110R, both hybrids of V. rupestris and V. berlandieri, are examples of rootstocks that have high tolerance to acidic soils
4. Vigour – Rootstocks can be used to moderate or enhance the vigour of the vine; Low vigour rootstocks can advance ripening, which may be useful in cool climates
   (Page 62)

Question 26

Which rootstocks are mentioned as tolerant to root-knot nematodes?

Answer 26

1. Ramsey and Dog Ridge (both Vitis champini) are two examples of rootstocks that are tolerant of root-knot nematodes
   (Page 62)

Question 27

Which rootstocks are mentioned as drought tolerant and why?

Answer 27

1. Rootstocks that are hybrids of V. rupestris and V. berlandieri, such as 110R or 140R, are highly tolerant of drought because of their ability to root deeply and quickly
   (Page 62)

Question 28

Which rootstock is mentioned as being suitable for waterlogged soils?

Answer 28

1. Rootstocks based on V. riparia, such as Riparia Gloire, are tolerant of water-logged soil and so can be useful in regions with high rainfall and water-retaining soils
   (Page 62)

Question 29

Which rootstock is mentioned as being salt tolerant?

Answer 29

1. In areas where salinity (high levels of salt in the water) is a problem, rootstocks based on V. berlandieri that are tolerant of soils with higher levels of dissolved salt, such as 1103P, may be used
   (Page 62)

Question 30

Which rootstocks are mentioned as suitable for acidic soils?

Answer 30

1. 99R and 110R, both hybrids of V. rupestris and V. berlandieri, are examples of rootstocks that have high tolerance to acidic soils
   (Page 62)

Question 31

Which rootstock is mentioned as suitable for high lime soils?

Answer 31

1. Rootstocks that are based on V. berlandieri, such as 41B, tend to be tolerant of soils with high lime content (high pH)
   (Page 62)

Question 32

Which rootstocks are described as low vigour, and why might they be useful?

Answer 32

1. Low vigour rootstocks can advance ripening, which may be useful in cool climates. These tend to be based on V. riparia, such as 420A and 3309C
   (Page 62)

Question 33

Which rootstocks are described as high vigour, and why might they be useful?

Answer 33

1. High vigour rootstocks based on V. rupestris, such as 140R, can be useful if the grape grower wants to boost vine growth and yields in vineyard areas with unfertile soils and dry conditions
2. This decision may also be based on the style of the wine to be produced. For example, a grape grower may use a high vigour rootstock to produce grapes for sparkling wine where high yields of grapes with delicate aromas and high acidity is more desirable than lower yields of grapes with more concentrated aromas, colour and/or tannins
   (Page 62)

Question 34

How does vine age affect production characteristics?

Answer 34

1. In the first two or three years of a vine’s life, it is common for the grape grower to remove inflorescences as they form so that the young vine can concentrate its resources on growth
2. Young vines (up to approximately five years old) typically produce relatively low yields because their root system is yet to be fully established
3. Depending on the grape variety and environmental conditions, between around 10 to 40 years, the vine is able to produce its maximum yields of fruit
4. Beyond that age the vine’s yield starts to decrease as its vigour decreases
   (Page 63)

Question 35

What legal restriction related to young vines is mentioned?

Answer 35

1. In some GIs, legislation restricts the use of fruit from very young vines
   (Page 63)

Question 36

What business decision might a grape grower face regarding old vines?

Answer 36

1. The grape grower must decide at what point the decreasing yield is no longer profitable
   (Page 63)

Question 37

What theories exist about why older vines may produce higher quality fruit?

Answer 37

1. With age these vines have become better balanced and adapted to their environment
2. The lower yields sometimes lead to more concentration in each grape (the vines’ resources are shared among fewer grapes)
3. Old vines also tend to have more old wood and therefore have a bigger store of carbohydrates to rely upon early in the growing season or when they are stressed
4. These vines have survived better than other vines over time because they were planted in the most favourable locations
   (Page 63-64)

Question 38

What practical considerations affect comparing young and old vines?

Answer 38

1. The grape grower is also likely to keep the best vines for longer before grubbing them up and replanting with a young vine
2. There are often too many variables (such as clone, rootstock, irrigation management, training and trellising) to make a direct comparison between the young and old vines of a particular grape variety and/or within a particular area
   (Page 64)

Question 39

Is the quality of fruit from old vines always better than from young vines?

Answer 39

1. The notion that old vines produce better fruit is not a definitive rule; a young vine planted in a suitable location and trained and trellised well is likely to produce better fruit than an old vine in an unsuitable location or that is badly maintained
   (Page 64)

Question 40

Why might older vines be kept in some vineyards but replaced in others?

Answer 40

1. Very old vines (50 years or more) may well remain profitable in famous old vineyards in Burgundy or in the Eden Valley where the wine will obtain super-premium prices
2. In some areas making inexpensive or mid-priced wines, medium to high yields are required, and the old vines will be replaced
3. The grape grower must decide at what point the decreasing yield is no longer profitable
   (Page 63)

Question 41

What issues exist with the term ‘old vines’ as used on wine labels?

Answer 41

1. The term ‘old vines’ (or equivalents in other languages such as ‘vieilles vignes’ or ‘viñas viejas’) is commonly seen on wine labels because of its connotations of quality
2. This term is not regulated, however, and therefore ‘old vines’ for one producer may be 30 years, whereas it may be 100 years for another
3. Some regions have put in place associations that help to protect and classify their old vines, such as The Historic Vineyard Society in California and The Barossa Old Vine Charter
   (Page 64)

Question 42

Which regional associations are mentioned that help protect and classify old vines?

Answer 42

1. The Historic Vineyard Society in California
2. The Barossa Old Vine Charter
3. Such classifications will often specify a minimum vine age
   (Page 64)