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Psychology, Social Psychology > Chapter 5, The Self > Flashcards

Chapter 5, The Self Flashcards

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1
Q

How was other species sense of self tested?

A
  • Red dye experiment (Gallup, 1977)
  • Gave Chimps and Orangutans a mirror
  • Paint red dye on the apes
  • Did they notice the red spot?

Most members of the great ape family were able to recognize their self-concept

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2
Q

What is a Self-concept?

A

The overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes.

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3
Q

What is a Self-Schema?

A

The beliefs that people hold about themselves that guide the processing of self-relevant information.

  • One can be schematic or aschematic on a dimension or trait
  • Influence what people notice, think and remember.
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4
Q

Is Self-Concept influenced by Culture?

A

Yes it is influenced by cultural orientation

  • Western Cultures - individualistic
  • Eastern Cultures - Collectivistic
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5
Q

What is Independent Self?

A

Defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions.

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6
Q

What is Interdependent Self?

A

Defining oneself in terms of relationships with others

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7
Q

What is Introspection?

A

The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives

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8
Q

What is the question within Self-Awareness theory?

A

Do we focus on ourselves most of the time?

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9
Q

What happens when we focus on ourselves in Self-Awareness Theory?

A

When we focus on ourselves, we compare our behaviour to our internal standards and values.

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10
Q

What are the consequences of Self-Awareness?

A

if our behavior does not match, we have two options:

  • Modify Behaviour
  • Avoid Self-Awareness
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11
Q

What is the plus side of Self-Awareness?

A

It can improve behavior

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12
Q

What was Diener and Wallbom’s experiment?

A

Participants were asked to complete a difficult test in 5 mins

  • Completed test under two conditions:
    - High Self-Awareness: mirror
    - Low Self-Awareness: no mirror

-Dependent measure: Whether participants kept working after 5 mins

The results showed that when the mirror was present cheating behavior was very low, and without it present cheating behavior was high.

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13
Q

What is the Spotlight Effect?

A

People tend to believe that the social spotlight shines more brightly on them than it really does

-If we are focused on ourselves, we assume others are too

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14
Q

What is Self-Awareness Theory?

A

The idea is that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior with their internal standards and values.

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15
Q

What is a Causal Theory?

A

Theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviors; typically, we learn such theories from our cultures

(e.g. “absence makes the heart grow fonder”)

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16
Q

What was the Barry Manilow T-shirt Study?

A

It was conducted by Gilovich, Medvec, and Savitsky

Upon arrival at the experiment, participants were told the experiment was in another room. Participants were told to “Put on this t-shirt”

  • Large picture either flattering or unflattering
  • Brought to another room and instructed to knock on the door
  • Participants entered a room where a group of observers was seated.
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17
Q

What was the Barry Manilow T-shirt Study? (Part 2)

A

Participants were asked

  • “How many of the people in the room you were just in would be able to tell me who is on your t-shirt?”
  • Observers were asked, “Can you remember what was pictured on the target’s t-shirt?”
  • Spotlight effect: The discrepancy in estimates.
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18
Q

What were the results of the T-shirt Study?

A

The average discrepancy was 23%

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19
Q

What is Self-Perception Theory?

A

The theory is that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs.

Behavior that we freely choose is more informative than behavior that was not freely chosen

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20
Q

What is Intrinsic Motivation?

A

The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures

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21
Q

What is Extrinsic Motivation?

A

The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting

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22
Q

What is the Overjustification Effect?

A

The case whereby people view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which their behavior was caused by intrinsic reasons

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23
Q

What is Task-Contingent Rewards?

A

Rewards are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done.

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24
Q

What is Performance-Contingent Rewards?

A

Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task.

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25
Q

What is the Looking-Glass Self?

A

The idea is that we see ourselves through the eyes of other people and incorporate their views into our self-concept.

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26
Q

What is the Illusion of Transparency?

A

It is that we believe that others have more access to our internal states than they do.

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27
Q

What was the Construction during Film Experiment?

A

It was conducted by Nisbett and Wilson

Participants watched a documentary film in one of two conditions:

  • A loud noise outside the door
  • No distracting noise
28
Q

What is Bem’s Self-Perception Theory?

A

When we are uncertain about our attitudes or feelings, we use our past behavior as a guide.

29
Q

What is the Facial Feedback Hypothesis?

A

The hypothesis is that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion.

Extends to posture as well (Stepper & Strack, 1993)

  • Adjusted table so participants had to either sit up straight or slump forward when completing an experimental task
  • Those who slumped reported experiencing less pride than those who sat up straight!
30
Q

What experiment was used to illustrate Self-Perception Theory?

A

It was conducted by Deci (1971)

  • Participants were instructed to complete puzzles
  • Paid vs. not paid
  • Subsequent puzzle-building activity was covertly observed.
31
Q

What is Self-Regulation?

A

The process by which we seek to control our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and urges.

  • Self-control is drawn from a common reservoir (is a limited resource)
  • Once exercised, self-control temporarily decreases (like a muscle that gets tired)
32
Q

What was the Cookie Study (Baumeister et al., 1998)?

A
  • Study on “taste perception”
  • Participants had to skip a meal before the experiment
  • Lab filled with the aroma of fresh baking
33
Q

What was the Cookie Study? (Part two)

A
  • Radish condition: can only eat radishes
  • Chocolate cookies condition: eat anything you’d like
  • Control condition: no cookies or radishes available
  • Experimenter left the room
34
Q

What is the Positive Illusion of Self?

A

That we tend to:

  • See positive traits as more self-descriptive than negative traits
  • Exhibit the “Better Than Average” Effect (Alicke, 1985)
  • Be unrealistically optimistic (Weinstein, 1980)
35
Q

What is Social Comparison Theory?

A

The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves with other people

36
Q

What is Self-Control?

A

The ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals

37
Q

What is Implementation Intentions?

A

People’s specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal or avoid the temptation

38
Q

What is Downward Social Comparison?

A

The process whereby we compare ourselves with people who are worse than we are in a particular trait or ability.

39
Q

What is Upward Social Comparison?

A

The process whereby we compare ourselves with people who are better than we are in a particular trait or ability.

40
Q

What is a Sociometer?

A

The theory that self-esteem is a gauge that monitors the extent to which we are accepted or rejected by others

41
Q

What is Self-Enhancement?

A

An unrealistically positive view of oneself

42
Q

What is Self-Verification Theory?

A

A theory that suggests that people have a need to seek confirmation of their self-concept, whether the self-concept is positive or negative; in some circumstances, this tendency can conflict with the desire to uphold a favorable view of oneself.

43
Q

What is Basking in Reflected Glory?

A

That we tend to associate ourselves with others’ successes.

44
Q

What is Implicit Egotism?

A

The often unconscious tendency to gravitate toward people, places, and things that resemble the self

45
Q

What is Implicit Egotism linked to?

A

Self-Evaluation

46
Q

What is the Better than Average Effect?

A

The individuals tendency to overestimate the extent they contribute.

47
Q

What kind of questions are pursued in Self-Perception research?

A
  • What type of information do we use to form opinions about ourselves?
  • How do we account for our thoughts, feelings and behaviours?
  • What are the consequences of the beliefs and feelings that we hold about ourselves?
48
Q

What are the Origins and Nature of the Self-concept?

A

The self-concept refers to the contents of the self—namely one’s knowledge of one’s own thoughts, beliefs, and personality traits. In humans, self-cognition develops at around 18–24 months of age.

By adolescence, the self becomes much more complex. In this chapter, we have explored how people come to know and evaluate themselves.

49
Q

What is Self-Schema in relation to the Content of the Self?

A

People organize information about themselves into self-schemas, which are knowledge structures about the self that help people understand, explain, and predict their own behavior.

One advantage of self-schemas is that people can remember information better if they relate it to themselves.

People differ in the extent to which their sense of self is clearly defined. Having low self-concept clarity is associated with negative thoughts and feelings.

50
Q

What are some cultural differences in defining the Self?

A

People who grow up in Western cultures tend to have an independent view of the self, whereas people who grow up in Asian cultures tend to have an interdependent view of the self.

51
Q

What are the gender differences in defining the self?

A

Women tend to have relational interdependence, focusing more on close relationships, whereas men tend to have collective interdependence, focusing on their membership in larger groups.

52
Q

In Self-Knowledge what is Introspection?

A

It is the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives.

53
Q

In Self-Awareness theory what happens when we focus on ourselves?

A

According to self-awareness theory, when people focus on themselves, they evaluate and compare their current behavior to their internal standards and values.

54
Q

When judging why we feel the way we do, how does telling more than we can know to affect our observations?

A

According to research on “telling more than we can know,” when people introspect about why they feel the way they do, they often use causal theories, many of which are learned from their culture.

55
Q

What is another way we gain self-knowledge?

A

Another way that people gain self-knowledge is by observing their own behavior.

Self-perception theory argues that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our own behavior and the situation in which it occurs.

56
Q

What is Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation?

A

An overjustification effect occurs when people focus on the extrinsic reasons for their behavior and underestimate their intrinsic reasons.

The kinds of rewards that are given also make a difference. Task-contingent rewards are given for doing a task, regardless of how well it is done.

Performance-contingent rewards are based on how well people perform the task.

Generally, performance-contingent rewards are less likely to undermine intrinsic motivation because they convey the message that you are good at the task.

57
Q

How do we know ourselves through other people?

A

Social relationships are important in people’s definition of self.

According to the looking-glass self, our sense of who we are is based on others’ perceptions of us.

These perceptions become internalized and can influence our sense of self at any given time.

58
Q

How does comparing ourselves to others contribute to knowing ourselves?

A

We also know ourselves through comparison with others.

Social comparison theory states that we will compare ourselves with others when we are unsure of our standing on some attribute and there is no objective criterion we can use.

Typically, we choose to compare ourselves with similar others, for this is most diagnostic.

59
Q

How is Self-control the executive function of the self?

A

The self-control serves to regulate behaviour, choices, and plans for the future.

Research on the self-regulatory resource model suggests that we have a limited amount of energy to devote to exercising self-control.

60
Q

How do we evaluate our knowledge of ourselves?

A

People not only have knowledge of themselves; they also evaluate that knowledge—either positively or negatively.

61
Q

What is Social Comparison and what is it separated into?

A

Downward social comparison—comparing ourselves with those who are inferior on the relevant attribute

-can make us feel better about ourselves, so long as we are confident that we are not vulnerable to their plight.

Upward social comparison—comparing ourselves with those who are superior on the relevant attribute

-can make us feel better about ourselves if we are focusing on our actual (usual) self, but it can make us feel worse about ourselves if we are focusing on our best or ideal self.

62
Q

According to Sociometer Theory how does self-esteem operate?

A

According to sociometer theory, self-esteem operates as a gauge that monitors how much we are accepted or rejected by others.

When others reject us, it is a signal to restore our relationships.

People who are chronically low in self-esteem tend to expect rejection, whereas people who are chronically high in self-esteem tend to expect that they will be accepted by others.

63
Q

Is Self-evaluation biased or accurate?

A

One way of feeling good about ourselves is to distort or exaggerate our positive qualities.

On the contrary, sometimes we want other people to “tell it like it is” so that we develop an accurate picture of who we are.

Consequently, it seems we are caught between wanting to view ourselves in the most positive possible light and wanting an accurate assessment of what we are really like.

64
Q

What has research suggested about wanting to feel good about ourselves, regardless of facts?

A

Research on self-enhancement suggests that the need to feel good about ourselves is so strong that we tend to hold unrealistically positive views of ourselves.

It is important to realize that self-enhancement is more prevalent in individualist (Western) cultures. In collectivist (Eastern) cultures, people are more likely to be self-critical, a phenomenon known as self-effacement.

65
Q

What is Self-verification theory in relation to wanting to know the truth about ourselves?

A

Self-verification theory holds that we want accurate information about what we are like—even if it is not flattering.

Generally, people opt for self-enhancement rather than self-verification, at least in individualist cultures

Psychology, Social Psychology (5 decks)

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