Chapter 5: Speech Sound Development and Disorders Flashcards
What is Language?
The abstract system of symbols used to communicate meaning; it is larger than speech
What is Speech?
The motor production of oral language
How are vowels and consonants described?
Vowel: distinctive features paradigm
Consonants: voice- place- manner
Behavioral Theory
Based on conditioning and learning
Focuses on describing observable and overt behaviors
Emphasizes that the child develops the adult-like speech of his or her community through interactions with the caregiver
The child-s babbling is gradually shaped into adult forms through principles of classical conditioning that happens during caregiver interactions
Generative Phonology Theory
A theory of the sound structure oh human language
2 main ideas
1. phonological descriptions are dependent on information from other linguistic levels
2. Phonological rules map underlying representations onto surface pronunciations
Enables a description of the relationship of children’s productions to adult pronunciations in terms of phonological rules
Natural Phonology Theory
Natural phonological processes are innate processes that simplify the adult target word
Children learn to suppress processes that do not occur in their language
Does not account for “nonnatural” simplification in the speech of children. Highly unintelligible children produce sounds of speech that cannot be described using natural phonology
Linear Phonology Theories
Foundation goals
1. Describe phonological patterns that occur in natural languages
2. Create rules that account for these systems
3. Identify universal principles that apply to various phonological system
Based on the premise that
- All speech segments are arranged in a sequential order
- All sound segments have equal value
- All distinctive features are equal
Basically: It is characterized by rules that operate in a domain of linear strings of segments. It is assumed that phonological properties are linear strings of segments and that so
Nonlinear Phonology Theories
Accounts for the influence of stress and tone features in levels of representation independent of segmental or linear representation
Deemphasize processes or rules and focus on prosodic phenomena
Assumes there is some sort of hierarchy that helps organize both segmental and suprasegmental phonological units/ properties
Acknowledges the fact that syllable structure could affect the segmental level of a child’s production
Optimality Theory
Basic unit are 2 major types of constraints
1. marked constraints: denoites limitations on output or what can br produced. Sounds that are difficult to produce are condisered marked
2. Faithfulness constraints: caputre the features that are to be preserved, prohibiting deletion and addition that violate the ambient language
The aim during children’s speech development is for the child’s output to match the adult target through demoting markedness constraints and promoting faithfulness constraints.
Infant Perception
Infant perception is studied through a high-amplitude sucking paradigm and visually reinforced head turn
Infants under 1 year are able to distinguish sounds that are not used in their language, but this ability declines around 12 months
Examples of structural differences in an infant related to sound production
- high larynx
- a tongue placed far forward in the oral cavity
Overlapping stages of development of prelinguistic, nonreflexive vocalizations (infant development of production)
- Phonation stage (birth- 1 month): Speech-like sounds are rare. Vocalizations are reflexive (burping, coughing, crying)
- Cooing or goo stage (2-4 months): Most of infants productions are acoustically similar to /u/. Some velar consonant-like sounds may occur
- Expansion stage (4-6 months): Infant is exploring their capabilities through productions like growls, squeals, yells, raspberries, etc. Some consonant-vowel-like combinations and vowel-like sounds may be produced
- Canonical or reduplicated babbling (6-8 months): Infant produces strings of CV syllables (mamama, dadada, dedede). There is no meaning to the sounds. Children with hearing loss fall behind here
- Variegated or nonreduplicated babbling stage (8 months- 1 year): Infant continued to use adult-like syllables in CV sequences. A variety of consonants and vowels appear in single vocalizations
Changes in child’s vocal tract anatomy and function
- Lip closure improves
- Larynx moved farther down the vocal tract
- tongue muscles increase
- tongue movements becomes dissociated from jaw movements
Ability to articulate improves
3 basic stages of phoneme acquisition
Stage 1 (age 2;0- 3;11): /b, m, p, n, w, d, h, k, g, t, f, ŋ/
Stage 2 (age 4;0-4-11) : /s, v, dʒ, l, z, ʃ, tʃ/
Stage 3 (age 5;0-6;11) : / r, ʒ, θ, ð/
Consonant clusters acquire later than most sounds
Speech intelligibility
The perceptual judgment made by listening to the child speaking and how well they are understood
Child intelligibility percentages
2 years: 60%-70%
3 years: 75%-80%
4 years: 90%-100%
Phonological patterns: substitution patterns
Vocalization: a vowel is substituted for a syllabic consonant
- Ex: bado for bottle
Gliding: Liquid consonant is produced as a glide
- Ex: wamp for lamp
Velar fronting: alveolar or dental replaces a velar
- Ex: tey for key
Stopping: Fricative or affricate is replaced by a stop
- Ex: tue for shoe
Depalatization: alveolar affricate is substituted for a palatal affricate
- Ex: wats for watch
Affrication: affricate is produced for a fricative or stop
- Ex: chun for sun
Deaffrication: fricative replaces an affricate
- Ex: sip for chip
Backing: Posteriorly placed consonant is produced instead of an anteriorly placed consonant
- Ex: boot for book
Glottal replacement: a glottal stop is produced for another consonant
- Ex: to for tooth
Phonological pattern: assimilation
Assimilation: sounds are changed due to neighboring sounds
Reduplication: child repeats a pattern
- Ex: wawa for water
Regressive assimilation: influenced by a later sound
- Ex: bip for zip
Progressive assimilation: influences by an earlier sound
- Ex: bup for but
Voicing assimilation: can be devoicing or voicing
Phonological patterns: syllable structure patterns
Involved the structure of an entire syllable and not just a specific sound
Unstressed or weak-syllable deletion: omission of an unstressed syllable
- Ex: mato for tomato
Final consonant deletion: final consonant is omitted
- Ex: be for bed
Epenthesis: A schwa vowel is inserted between the consonant in an initial cluster or after final voiced stop
- Ex: black for black
Consonant-cluster simplification/ reduction: Consonants or consonants in a cluster are deleted
- Ex: pun for spun
Diminutization: addition of /i/ to target
- Ex: doggy for dog
Metathesis: production of sound in a word in reversed order
- Ex: peek for keep
General Factors Related to Speech Sound Disorders
- Gender
- Intelligence
- Birth order and sibling status
- Socioeconomic stauts
- language development and academic performance
Other articulation errors made by children
- Substitutions
- Omissions or deletions
- Labiliziation
- Nasalization
- Pharyngral fricative
- Devoicing
- Frontal lisp
- Lateral lisp
- Stridency deletion
- initial, medical, and final position errors
- Prevocalic, intervocalic, and postvocalic errors
Assessment of Speech Sound Disorder Steps
- Screening: determines of further assessment is needed
- Case history
- Orofacial examination
- hearing screening
Specific steps - Conversation speech sample
- Evoked speech sample
- Stimulability
- Standardized tests
Primary purposes of assessment
- Determine whether the child manifests a clinically significant SSD
- Identify and describe the problem if it exists
General consideration in treatment
- thorough assessment and analysis of the child’s speech sound system
- determinatination of any exsiting patterns
- selection and prioritization of intervention targets
- Establishment of baseline of target sounds in all context: word, phrase, sentence, and conversational speech
- specifci training for target patterns, sound, or both
- Preparation of generalization and maintensnce activities
Speech sound Difference vs Disorder
Differences arrise from the influence of the child’s first language
Disorders exist when children make errors that are not typical for their cultural or lingusitic speech community
What is Phonological Awareness?
The explicit awareness of the sound structure of a language, or attention to the internal strucutre of words
What is metalinguistics
Refers to the child’s ability to manipulate and think about the structure of language
Phonological awareness skills and their age of development
Syllable Segmentation (4-5 years): knowing how many syllables are in a word
Rhyme Awareness (4-5 year): knowing if words rhyme or not
Alliteration awareness (4-5 years): detecting words that begin with the same sound
Letter knowledge (4-5 years): being able to label letters
Phoneme isolation (4-5 years): knowing if a sound is at the beginning, middle, or end of a word
Phoneme segmentation (6-7 years): knowing how many soinds are in a word
Phoneme blending (6-7 years): ability to listen to sounds ndividually and blend them into a wold word
Describe Motor-based approaches
Focus on improving the child’s perceptual and motor skills, and treat sounds as isolated segments.
Commonly used motor-based approaches include Van Riper’s traditional approach, McDonald’s sensorimotor approach, and SATPAC approach
Describe Linguistic approaches
Geared toward finding a highly unintelligible child’s underlying patterns and rule system and modifying that rule system to match the adult standard
Common linguistic approaches include contrast and the phonological approach
Core vocabulary approach
Used for children with inconsistent speech sound disorder, contains elements of both the motor-based and linguistic approaches
Describe organically based speech sound disorders
Assocaited with oral structural variables
- Ankloglossia (tongue-tie), dental deviations (malocclusion), poor oral-motor coordination skills, orofacial myofunctional disorders (tongue thurst), and hearing loss
