Chapter 5 - Memory

Question 1

Atkinson-Shriffin Multi-store Model of Memory

Answer 1

The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory is a model of memory which outlines the three separate stores of memory (sensory, short-term, and long-term) each of which interact through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Question 2

Sensory Memory

Answer 2

Entry-point for all new information. A store of memory which very briefly stores raw information from the external environment.
enables perceptual continuity of the world around us
Duration - 0.2-4 seconds (average)
Capacity - Vast, potentially unlimited.

Question 3

Short-Term Memory

Answer 3

A store of memory that temporarily stores a limited amount of information that is consciously being attended to and actively manipulated.
Duration - 18-20 seconds (up to 30 secs)
Capacity - 7±2 info

Question 4

Encoding

Answer 4

Process of converting information into a useable form which can be manipulated and stored in the brain.

Question 5

Storage

Answer 5

Retention of information over time

Question 6

Retrieval

Answer 6

Process of accessing information, that has been stored
in long-term memory, and bringing it into our conscious awareness in short-term memory.

Question 7

Long-Term Memory

Answer 7

A store of memory in which a potentially unlimited amount of information is stored for
a relatively permanent amount of time and can be retrieved later
Duration: Potentially permanent (Info may be lost or be inaccessible over time)
Capacity: Vast, Potentially unlimited

Question 8

Iconic Memory

Answer 8

Visual sensory memory.
Brief duration: 1/3 secs
Unlimited capacity

Question 9

Echoic Memory

Answer 9

Auditory sensory memory
Unlimited capacity.
Brief duration: 3-4 secs

Question 10

What happens if short-term memory is not processed and encoded in long-term memory?

Answer 10

Info can be pushed out by new incoming information (which is known as displacement) or fade away on its own after the duration of STM has expired (which is known as decay).

Question 11

Once info reaches STM there are 3 options:

Answer 11

1. Info can be retained in STM by working on or rehearsing the info.
2. Info can be discarded: If not encoded, used or consciously rehearsed
3. Info can be sent to LTM for storage: requires further encoding

Question 12

Atkinson-Shriffin model of memory’s Explanatory Power (Strengths)

Answer 12

• The model distinguishes between the different stores involved in memory.
• The model outlines that each memory store has a different capacity and duration.
• The model provides a good understanding of the structure and process of memory.
• Findings from memory studies support the distinction between STM and LTM outlined in the model.

Question 13

Atkinson-Shriffin model of memory’s Explanatory Power (Limitation)

Answer 13

The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory may be considered to be oversimplified.
* STM is more complex than the model suggests. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) propose that STM is not just a singular store but rather encompasses different components within it.
* The model ignores factors, such as motivation and strategy, which can facilitate learning and assist in encoding information from STM to LTM.
* Initially, the model proposed that rehearsal was necessary for information to be transferred into LTM. However, studies show that transferring information into LTM can occur without rehearsal.
* The model does not account for individual differences in memory processes, storage duration, and capacity.

Question 14

Explicit Memory

Answer 14

Type of long-term memory that is consciously retrieved from long-term memory and brought into conscious awareness in our short-term memory
Declarative = can be stated/declared to someone else.

Question 15

Semantic Memory

Answer 15

Type of explicit memory that consists of general knowledge or facts.
Eg, dogs bark cats meow

Question 16

Episodic Memory

Answer 16

Type of explicit memory that consists of personal experiences or events.
These memories are unique to each individual and their own personal experiences.
Eg, your 16th birthday party

Question 17

Implicit Memory

Answer 17

Type of long-term memory that is unconsciously retrieved and non-declarative (cannot be stated/declared to others)

Question 18

Procedural Memory

Answer 18

Type of implicit memory that involves knowing how to carry out tasks that are facilitated by motor skills.
Eg, knowing how to kick a ball

Question 19

Classically Conditioned Memory

Answer 19

Type of implicit memory that involves an involuntary response, which has been repeatedly associated with an emotionally-arousing stimulus. The response is usually emotionally charged, retrieved involuntarily and can be reflexive.

Reflexive responses (behavioural or emotional) occur without conscious effort.
Eg, biting nails when nervous or fear of spiders

Question 20

Hippocampus

Answer 20

Crucial roles in the formation and encoding of explicit memories. Important for consolidation. Research suggests is involved in the retrieval of explicit memories as well.

• part of the brain’s limbic system
• it is connected to the amygdala
• helps ensure they are neurologically stable and long-lasting explicit long-term memories

Consolidation = neurobiological process of making a newly formed memory stable and enduring following a learning experience

memories are reconstructive

Question 21

Amygdala

Answer 21

Primarily involved in encoding the emotional component of CC and explicit memories.
During heightened arousal, the amygdala is activated to attach emotional significance to the experience which signals the hippocampus to encode and store the memory with attached emotional details.

• role in processing and regulating emotional reactions, such as fear and anger (including aggression) that may be experienced intensely and can motivate certain types of behaviour

removed - no longer fear in CC memories anymore, but might remember that you were once afraid of dogs

also retrieves in autobiographical or imagined futures + hippocampus

Question 22

Neocortex

Answer 22

Stores explicit memories.
Crucial role in its interaction with the hippocampus in the formation, consolidation, storage and retrieval of long-term explicit memories.

• found in the brain of all mammals

Question 23

Basal Ganglia

Answer 23

Involved in the encoding and storing of procedural memories and CC memories that are associated with unconscious habits, behaviours or procedures. Basal Ganglia - encoding and storing responses that are learnt in CC.
Associated with impaired voluntary movements of people diagnosed with Parkinson’s.

• role in long-term implicit memories involving motor skills

motor skills
muscle movement
encoding muscle memory
Smooth sequence of the movements

Both the cerebellum and basal ganglia interact with each other to process procedural memory, cerebellum will store

Question 24

Cerebellum

Answer 24

Involved with the encoding and storage of implicit procedural memories.
Coordinates fine muscle movement, regulates posture and balance. Permanently stores conditioned simple reflexes

involved in skilled sequences of movements that require timing and are made with speed, ease and fluency

crucial for motor learning

Both the cerebellum and basal ganglia interact with each other to process procedural memory

Question 25

Autobiographical events

Answer 25

Personally lived experiences involving an overlap of episodic and semantic memories.
Hippocampus - retrieval of episodic
Frontal and Temporal Lobes - retrieval of semantic.

Question 26

Possible Imagined futures

Answer 26

Refer to hypothetical experiences and situations that an individual has the ability to create and conceptualise in their mind. Episodic and Semantic involved.
Same brain regions are activated in the retrieval of autobiographical memories.

Sustain damage to hippocampus then have difficulty remembering possibly imagined futures and autobiographical memories.

Question 27

Alzheimer’s Disease

Answer 27

A neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive loss of neurons in the brain and memory decline. Not a normal part of the ageing process.

Conclusive diagnosis can only be made through post-mortem examination.

From this, lesions (damaged area of tissue) can be examined through neuroimaging (predominantly found in the hippocampus).

death of neuron = impairments of memory since hippocampus is important for encoding and retrieving explicit memories
can’t encode new memories and retrieve long term memories, thus cant visualise future imagined events
starts in neocortex then hippocampus

Question 28

Amyloid Plaques

Answer 28

Fragments of the protein, Beta Amyloid that accumulate into insoluble plaques that inhibit communication between neurons.

Question 29

Neurofibrillary Tangles

Answer 29

Accumulation of the protein tau that forms insoluble tangles within neurons which then inhibit the transportation of essential substances and eventually kill the neuron entirely.

hippocampus damage
death of neuron - brain atrophy
sematic and episodic

Question 30

Effect of Alzheimer’s?

Answer 30

Struggle to remember semantic and episodic components of personally experienced events as damage can be associated with the hippocampus.

Study found that Alzheimer’s patients lacked the capacity to draw on episodic and semantic memories in order to plan and construct new future scenarios.

Question 31

Acetylcholine

Answer 31

People with Alzheimer’s also have greatly reduced levels of the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine (ACh). The amount of ACh in the brain decreases naturally as we age. With Alzheimer’s, it decreases much faster than normal.

Question 32

Aphantasia

Answer 32

A phenomenon in which individuals lack the capacity to generate mental imagery. Mental imagery refers to the visual representations and experiences of sensory information without the presence of sensory stimuli.

Question 33

How are people with Aphantasia unable to generate mental imagery?

Answer 33

People with aphantasia have difficulty drawing on visual components of episodic and semantic memory when creating mental imagery.

They may not be able to visualise richly detailed and vivid episodic memories due to their inability to generate mental imagery. Semantic memories may remain intact but visual components may be lacking.

Question 34

Possible imagined Futures and Autobiographical Memories in relation to Aphantasia.

Answer 34

Research shows that people with aphantasia struggle to retrieve autobiographical events and construct possible imagined futures.
Difficult to retrieve personally lived experiences bc cannot generate mental imagery of past autobiographical events from LTM.

Still able to apply non-visual components of autobiographical memories to future events but lack of mental imagery makes this process harder and less vivid.

Question 35

Mnemonics

Answer 35

Devices/Techniques used to aid the encoding, storage and retrieval of info.

Can be done by organising and linking new info to fit in with existing info in LTM, improving initial encoding of information.
- Doesn’t decrease amount of info needed to be stored.

Question 36

Acronyms

Answer 36

Mnemonic device in which the first letters of items form a pronounceable word to aid memory. Doesn’t have to be a real word.

Aids the encoding and storing of memory as they link info to words/sounds we already know.

First letter of each word is a retrieval cue that brings targeted info into STM for use.

prompt memory retrieval
EG, BODMAS

Question 37

Acrostics

Answer 37

Mnemonic device in which the first letters of items create a phrase, rhyme or poem to aid memory. Helpful when remembering things in order.

Links new info to familiar phrases/sentences which helps encode and store info.
First letter of each word is a retrieval cue that brings targeted info into STM for use.

EG, Never eat soggy weetbix.

Question 38

method of loci

Answer 38

Mnemonic device that converts items into mental images and associates them with specific locations to aid memory. Assists in encoding and storing of memories. Locations act as a retrieval cue.

1. Visualise a familiar route/place, e.g your house
2. Select several memorable landmarks/places on the route/place e.g bedroom
3. Create visual imagery for each item that needs to be remembered.(bizarre/funny = strengthen item being remembered)
4. Link each item to one of the memorable identified landmarks
5. Imagine visually walking through place/route and retrieve each item by observing items at each landmark.
   landmark = cues

Question 39

Sung Narratives

Answer 39

stories that share important cultural, ecological and survival info through the use of singing, harmony and rhythm.

Are performed to pass on info.

Narration and rhythm can enhance the encoding, transferring and retrieval of vital culture and survival info.

Question 40

Songlines

Answer 40

multimodal performances conducted as a family or community travels through country and spaces in the landscape that record journeys, link important sites and describe ways to live, care for and nurture country.
Use rhythm and narrative to communicate info linked to landscape which enhances encoding of info.

a navigation route comprising of sequence of locations often including significant landscape features. At each location a story, dance, or ceremony is performed that a associated with the particular location.
*link encoding storage and retrieval

oral cultures use sung narrative to increase encoding storage and retrieval
multimodal performances, song dance stories
culturally significant = much stronger, vivid memory

they are physically walking in songlines - aiding retrieval vs. visually imaging

both use locations to aid memory

Question 41

How do songlines work?

Answer 41

When songlines are sung and individuals walk through the landscape (physically/mentally) individuals are able to retrieve the info that is linked to the different stories placed along the route. Carries laws and stories they live by.
(dreaming tracks)

Question 42

Comparison of Songlines and loci

Answer 42

Songlines are multimodal performances and conducted as a family or community. Moreover they use rhythm and enable storage of immense amounts of info whereas loci stores limited amounts of info.
Culturally significant, thus more vivid than method of loci
Mentally walking through vs. physically walking through Country

Similarities are that they both link info to memorable landmarks (sacred sites) and prompt physically/mentally walking through the route or place to remember.
Both methods may use narrative to aid encoding and are both mnemonics used to aid memory.
Both good at remembering things in order.

Question 43

Written Traditions

Answer 43

Practices in which knowledge, stories, and customs are preserved and shared through writing and reading.
Eg, acronyms, acrostics and method of loci.

Question 44

Oral Traditions

Answer 44

Oral traditions are practices in which knowledge, stories, and customs are preserved and shared through spoken word and movement.
Eg, sung narratives and songlines.

Question 45

Chunking

Answer 45

Process by which
you can group smaller ‘chunks’ of information into larger ‘chunks’ in order to hold more information in STM

Question 46

Maintenance Rehearsal

Answer 46

Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating new information over and over again to keep the information in STM for as long as possible.

Question 47

Elaborative Rehearsal

Answer 47

Elaborative rehearsal involves meaningfully linking new information to information already stored in long- term memory.

Question 48

Anterograde Amnesia

Answer 48

a type of memory loss that occurs when you can’t form new memories.

Question 49

Retrograde Amnesia

Answer 49

amnesia where you can’t recall memories that were formed before the event that caused the amnesia.