Chapter 5: MEMORY Flashcards
1
Q
- The means by which we retain and draw on information from our past experiences to use in the present.
A
Memory
2
Q
- It refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with storing, retaining, and retrieving information about past experience.
A
Memory as a process
3
Q
What are the three (3) common operations of memory?
A
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
4
Q
Transform sensory data into a form of mental representation.
A
Encoding
5
Q
Keep encoded information in memory.
A
Storage
6
Q
Pull out or use information stored in memory.
A
Retrieval
7
Q
Two major categories [Tasks used for measuring memory]
A
- Recall versus Recognition task
- Implicit versus Explicit task
8
Q
Recall versus Recognition Task
- In _______, producing a fact, a word or other item for memory.
- Fill in the blank and most essay tests require that you _______ items for memory.
A
Recall
9
Q
Recall versus Recognition Task
- In ________, selecting or identifying an item as being one that you have been exposed to previously.
- Multiple-choice and true-false tests involve some degree of ___________.
A
Recognition
10
Q
What are the three [3] main types of recall task?
A
- Serial Recall
- Free Recall
- Cued Recall
11
Q
Recalling items in the exact order in which they were presented.
A
Serial Recall
12
Q
Recalling items in any chosen order.
A
Free Recall
13
Q
- Also called “paired-associates recall”
- The items in pairs will firstly be shown. During recall, the person is cued with only one member of each pair and is asked to recall each mate.
A
Cued Recall
14
Q
Implicit versus Explicit Memory Task
- In ________ _________ _______, participants engage in conscious recollection.
- It requires them to consciously recall information such as recalling or recognizing words, facts or pictures prior to set items.
A
Explicit Memory Task
15
Q
Implicit versus Explicit Memory Task
- In __________ _________ ______, we use information from memory but are not consciously aware that we are doing so.
- ________ ________ helps us to complete incomplete words we encounter even without being consciously aware of it.
A
- Implicit Memory Task
- Implicit Memory
16
Q
What are the memory tasks involve for declarative knowledge?
A
Recall or recognition of explicit memory
17
Q
What are the memory tasks involve for procedural knowledge?
A
- Implicit memory and memory
18
Q
- You must consciously recall particular information.
- Who wrote Hamlet?
A
Explicit-memory tasks
19
Q
- You must recall facts.
- What is your first name?
A
Declarative-knowledge tasks
20
Q
- You must produce a fact, a word or other item from memory.
- Fill-in-the-blank tests require that you recall items from memory.
- For example, “The term for persons who suffer severe memory impairment is ______.”
A
Recall tasks
21
Q
- You must repeat the items in a list in the exact order in which you heard or read them.
- If you were shown the digits 2-8-7-1-6-4, you would be expected to repeat “2-8-7-1-6-4,” in exactly that order
A
Serial-Recall Task
22
Q
- You must repeat the items in a list in any order in which you can recall them.
- If you were presented with the word list “dog, pencil, time, hair, monkey, restaurant,” you would receive full credit if you repeated ‘monkey, restaurant, dog, pencil, time, hair.”
A
Free-Recall Task
23
Q
- You must memorize a list of paired items: then when you are given one item in pair, you must recall the mate for that item.
- Suppose that you were given the following list of pairs: “time-city, mist-home, switch-paper, credit-day, fist-cloud, number-branch.” Later, when you were given the stimulus “switch,” you would be expected to say “paper,” and so on.
A
Cued-Recall Task
24
Q
- You must select or otherwise identify an item as being one that you learned previously.
- Multiple-choice and true-false tests involve recognition.
- For example, “The term for people with outstanding memory ability is (1) amnesic, (2) semanticists, (3) mnemonists, or (4) retrogaders.”
A
Recognition Tasks
25
- You must draw on information in memory without consciously realizing that you are doing so.
- Word-completion tasks tap implicit memory. You would be presented with a word fragment, such as the first three letters of a word; then you would be asked to complete the word fragment with the first word that comes to mind. For example, suppose that you were asked to supply the missing three letters to fill in these blanks and form a word:
__e__or__.
- Because you had recently seen the word memory, you would be more likely to provide the three letters m-m-y for the blanks than would someone who had not recently been exposed to the word. [You have been “primed”]
Implicit-Memory Tasks
26
- You must remember learned skills and automatic behaviors, rather than facts.
- If you were asked to demonstrate a “knowing-how”skill, you might be given experience in solving puzzles or in reading mirror writing, and then you would be asked to show what you remember of how to use those skills. Or you might be asked to master or to show what you already remember about particular motor skills [e.g., riding a bicycle or ice skating]
Tasks involving procedural knowledge
27
What are the two tasks involve in implicit memory?
1. Priming Task
2. Task involving procedural knowledge
28
The facilitation of your ability to utilize missing information.
Priming Task
29
Many of the activities that we do everyday fall under the procedural memory. These can range from brushing your teeth to writing.
Task involving procedural knowledge
30
- Also called as the memory for processes
- Sometimes examined with the rotary pursuit task.
Procedural Memory
31
Requires participants to maintain contact between an L-shaped stylus and a small rotating disk.
Rotary Pursuit Task
32
They noted that when a new disk or speed is used, participants do relatively poorly. But with the same disk and speed, participants do as well as they had after learning the task, even if they do not remember previously completing the task.
Verdolini-Marston and Balota [1994]
33
- Another task used to examine procedural memory.
- A plate with the outline of a shape drawn on it is put behind a barrier where it cannot be seen.
Mirror-Tracing Task
34
Both implicit and explicit memory are important in our everyday lives. He also has argued that implicit memory, like explicit memory, is an important part of human intelligence.
S.B. Kaufman [2010]
35
Who proposed the two [2] structures of memory?
William James
36
What are the two [2] structures of memory?
1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Memory
37
Holds temporary information currently in use.
Primary Memory
38
Holds information permanently or at least for a very a long time.
Secondary Memory
39
Proponents of Three Memory Stores
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
40
Three Memory Stores
1. Sensory Store
2. Short-Term Store
3. Long-Term Store
41
- Capable of storing relatively limited amounts of information for very brief periods.
- Visual, auditory, haptic
- Is the initial repository of much information that eventually enters the shorthand long-term stores
Sensory Store
42
Is a discrete visual sensory register that holds information for very short periods. Its name derives from the fact that information is stored in the form of icons.
Iconic Store
43
- Capable of storing information for somewhat longer periods but of relatively limited capacity as well.
- Temporary working memory
- Control processes: Rehearsal —> Retrieval Strategies —> Response output
- It holds memories for a few seconds and occasionally up to a couple of minutes.
Short-Term Store
44
- Capable of very large capacity and of storing information for very long periods, perhaps even indefinitely.
- Permanent memory store
- Here we keep memories that stay with us over long periods.We hold in it information we need to get us by in our day-to-day lives.
Long-Term Store
45
- The existence of the iconic store was first discussed in a doctoral dissertation by a graduate student at Harvard University named George Sperling.
- He addressed the question of how much information we can encode in a single, brief glance at a set of stimuli.
Sperling’s Discovery
46
What are the procedures used by Brigden and Sperling?
1. Whole-report Procedure
2. Partial-report Procedure
47
Participants report every symbol they have seen.
Whole-report Procedure
48
Participants need to report only part of what they see.
Partial-report Procedure
49
In subsequent work, participants were shown displays of two rows of eight randomly chosen letters for a duration of 50 milliseconds. In this investigation, a small mark appeared just above one of the positions where a letter had appeared.
Subsequent Refinement [Subsequent Work]
50
Refers to the very long-term storage of information, such as knowledge of a foreign language and of mathematics.
Permastore
51
- A radical departure from Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multistore model of memory.
- The _______ _______ ______ framework suggests that memory does not comprise three or even any specific number of separate stores, but rather it varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding.
Levels-of-processing [LOP] framework
52
In the _________ _______, short-term memory serves only to store information for a short time.
Traditional View
53
The ______ _______ _______, however, establishes a more dynamic view, whereby working memory serves not only to hold information but also to process that information.
Working-memory Concept
54
According to Dosher,
- _______ _______ holds only the most recently activated, or conscious, portion of longterm memory, and it moves these activated elements into and out of brief, temporary memory storage.
- ______ _______ is involved with the manipulation of information, whereas short-term memory serves only a storage purpose.
Working Memory
55
- He combines the working memory model with the LOP framework and provides an integrative model of memory.
- In this model, the LOP framework is an extension of, rather than a substitute for, the working-memory model.
Alan Baddeley
56
Baddeley originally suggested that working memory comprises five elements:
1. Visuospatial Sketchpad
2. Phonological Loop
3. Central Executive
4. Subsidiary Slave Systems
5. Episodic Buffer
57
- Briefly holds some visual images, It contains both spatial and visual information, but some evidence indicates that actually two separate mechanisms within the __________ _________ deal with spatial and visual information.
- Information in the visuospatial sketchpad decays rapidly. We somehow rehearse the information to keep it from fading.
Visuospatial Sketchpad
58
Logie [1995], suggested that we have a “______ ______” that passively stores visual information, such as color and form.
Visual Cache
59
He [Logie, 1995] further suggested we have an “ ______ _______” that retains movement information and is responsible for rehearsal of the information.
Inner Scribe
60
- Briefly stores mainly verbal information for verbal comprehension and for acoustic rehearsal.
- We use this for a number of everyday tasks, including sounding out new and difficult words and solving word problems.
Phonological Loop
61
Two [2] critical components of Phonological Loop
1. Phonological Storage
2. Subvocal Rehearsal [Articulatory Process]
62
Holds information in memory. Acts as an ‘inner ear’.
Phonological Storage
63
Holds information by nonverbally practicing it. Information is rehearsed here to prevent its fading in the phonological store. Acts as an "inner voice".
Subvocal Rehearsal [Articulatory Process]
64
When subvocal rehearsal is inhibited, the new information is not stored.
Articulatory Suppression
65
The amount of information that can be manipulated within the phonological loop is limited. Thus, we can remember fewer longer words compared with shorter words (Baddeley, 2000b) because it takes us longer to rehearse and produce the longer words. This phenomenon is called the word _______ _______.
Length Effect
66
- Allocates attention within working memory.
- Decides how to divide attention between two or more tasks that need to be done at the same time.
- Decides how to switch attention back and forth between multiple tasks.
- Is critical to working memory because it is the gating mechanism that decides what information to process further and how to process this information.
- It decides what resources to allocate to memory and related tasks, and how to allocate them. It is also involved in higher-order reasoning and comprehension and is central to human intelligence.
Central Executive
67
Performs other cognitive or perceptual tasks.
Subsidiary Slave Systems
68
- Explains how we integrate information in working memory, long-term memory, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the phonological loop.
- This buffer allows us to solve problems and reevaluate previous experiences with more recent knowledge.
Episodic Buffer
69
Prefrontal cortex, the posterior parietal lobe, the dorsal premotor cortex, and the occipital cortex
Neuroscience of Visuospatial Working Memory
70
- Maintaining speech-related information
- Appears to involve activation in the left hemisphere of the lateral frontal and inferior parietal lobes as well as temporal lobe
Neuroscience of Phonological Loop
71
Functions appear to involve activation mostly in the frontal lobes.
Neuroscience of Central Executive
72
Operations seem to involve the bilateral activation of the frontal lobes and portions of the temporal lobes, including the left hippocampus.
Neuroscience of Episodic Buffer
73
- The working-memory model is consistent with the notion that multiple systems may be involved in the storage and retrieval of information.
- One would be for organizing and storing information with a distinctive time referent. The second system would be for information that has no particular time referent.
Multiple Memory Systems
74
Two [2] kinds of Explicit Memory
1. Semantic Memory
2. Episodic Memory
75
Stores general world knowledge.
Semantic Memory
76
Stores personally experienced events or episodes.
Episodic Memory
77
A neuroscientific model which attempts to account for differences in hemispheric activation for semantic versus episodic memories. According to this model, there is greater activation in the left prefrontal hemisphere for tasks requiring retrieval from semantic memory. In contrast, there is more activation in the right prefrontal hemisphere for episodic retrieval tasks.
HERA [Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Symmetry]
78
Non-declarative Memory
- Procedural Memory
- Priming Effects
- Simple Classical Conditioning
- Habituation
- Sensitization
- Perceptual aftereffects
79
Connectionist models argue that our brain handles many operations and processes at once, so that a parallel-processing model of working memory (where multiple operations are processed at the same time) may make more sense.
A Connectionist Perspective
80
The _______ _______ ______ ______ fits nicely with the notion of working memory as including the activated portion of long-term memory.
Parallel Distributed- Processing [PDP] Model
81
Is a node that activates a connected node.
Prime
82
Is the resulting activation of the node.
Priming Effect
83
- Someone who demonstrates extraordinarily keen memory ability, usually based on using special techniques for memory enhancement.
- Alexander Luria [1968]
Mnemonist
84
Is the experience of sensations in a sensory modality different from the sense that has been physically stimulated.
Synesthesia
85
- Is a process of producing retrieval of memories that would seem to have been forgotten.
- Sometimes loosely referred to as “unforgetting,”.
Hypermnesia
86
Is severe loss of explicit memory.
Amnesia
87
Individuals lose their purposeful memory for events before whatever trauma induces memory loss.
Retrograde Amnesia
88
The inability to remember events that occur after a traumatic event.
Anterograde Amnesia
89
The inability to recall events that happened when we were very young.
Infantile Amnesia
90
Normal individuals show the presence of a particular function (e.g., explicit memory).
Dissociation
91
People with different kinds of neuropathological conditions show opposite patterns of deficits.
Double Dissociation
92
- Alois Alzheimer
- Disease of older adults that causes dementia as well as progressive memory loss.
Alzheimer's Disease
93
Is a loss of intellectual function that is severe enough to impair one’s everyday life.
Dementia
94
Is diagnosed when memory is impaired and there is at least one other area of dysfunction in the domains of language, motor, attention, executive function, personality, or object recognition.
Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease
95
The symptoms are of gradual onset, and the progression is continuous and irreversible.
Alzheimer’s diseas
96
A special kind of Alzheimer’s disease that is familial. It has been linked to a genetic mutation.
Early-Onset Alzheimer's Disease
97
Appears to be complexly determined and related to a variety of possible genetic and environmental influences, none of which have been conclusively identified.
Late-Onset Alzheimer's Disease
