Chapter 5: Learning and Motivation

Question 1

Employee motivation (def)

Answer 1

= the forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior

Question 2

Employee engagement (def)

Answer 2

essentially, MOTIVATION towards WORK

= employee’s emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposeful effort towards work-related goals (employee engagement is difficult!!)

motivation –> engagement –> performance

Question 3

Drives (primary needs) (def, includes 3 characteristics)

Answer 3

= hardwired characteristics of the brain that correct deficiencies or maintain internal equilibrium by producing EMOTIONS THAT ENERGIZE US

1. INNATE and UNIVERSAL (= everyone has them, they exist from the birth)
2. Produces EMOTIONS that energize us to take action (prime movers of behavior)
3. Emotions are amplified or suppressed by SELF-CONCEPT, SOCIAL NORMS, PAST EXPERIENCE (–> different intensity)

Question 4

Needs (def and 3 characteristics)

Answer 4

= something a person requires

1. CHANNEL EMOTIONS that are consciously aware of to be towards specific goals (vs. drive gives us the energy, channeled towards the needs)
2. Goals formed by SELF-CONCEPT, SOCIAL NORMS, SOCIAL NEEDS
3. Unmet needs are more intense usually than met ones

Question 5

Drives and needs model (Hint: behavioral model)

Answer 5

Drives and emotions + needs + self-concept/social norms/experience = DECISION AND BEHAVIOR

Question 6

Extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation

Answer 6

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION:

• Motivated to do an activity for its own value (vs. doing it for an external outcome from the activity)
• Fills needs for competence and autonomy directly

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION:

• Motivated to receive something beyond our own control (needs indirectly fulfilled)
• Three forms of extrinsic motivation:
  a. Deadlines
  b. Payment
  c. Recognition rewards

Question 7

Motivation theories (def) - OVERVIEW

Answer 7

!! Motivation theories are very difficult since motivation is very specific and individual!!

When we think about incentives we also need to consider whether it encourages individuals to work alone or collaborate (if I reward the “best” it will not encourage collaboration). Having in mind clear goals is really helpful in achieving the intended outcome!!!

1. Maslow’s need hierarchy
2. Four-drive theory
3. Learned needs theory
4. Expectancy theory
5. Goal setting theory
6. Effective feedback theory
7. OB MOD theory
8. Social cognitive theory

Question 8

1. Maslow’s need hierarchy (motivation theories)

- contributions/limitations

Answer 8

Developed in 1940’s, composed of 5 basic categories (= hierarchy) + 2 innate drivers capture most needs (PSYCHOLOGICAL, SAFETY, BELONGINGNESS, ESTEEM, SELF-ACTUALIZATION + NEED TO KNOW/NEED FOR BEAUTY)- Lowest unmet need is strongest source of motivation until satisfied, then next higher need becomes top motivator

Self-actualization = growth need, never fulfilled

For example, you can’t think about studying or hanging out with friends when you are hungry.

CONTROIBUTIONS

• Holistic perspective = recommended studying multiple needs together
• Humanistic perspective = recognized that social dynamics, not just instinct, influence motivation
• Positive perspective = emphasized importance of self-actualization (growth needs) and foundation of positive OB

LIMITATIONS

• Model lacks empirical support
• Each of us has a unique needs hierarchy – there is no universal hierarchy

Question 9

2. Four-drive theory (motivation theories)

• definition
• characteristics
• definition of the four drivers
• how to apply in the workplace?
• limitations

Answer 9

Four-drive theory = a motivation theory based on the innate drivers to acquire, bond, learn, and defend that incorporates both emotions and rationality

CHARACTERISTICS

1. Focused on emotions (= most of motivation theories consider mainly cognitive aspects)
2. No hierarchy, drives are independent from one another
3. Proactive (3) vs. Reactive drives (defend)
4. 4 drives counterbalance each other (bonds vs. acquire, defend vs. comprehend)

Drive to ACQUIRE = seek, acquire, control, retain objects or experiences (workplace should provide opportunities to acquire new knowledge and skills)
Drive to BOND = form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with others (consultants should regularly meet with other consultants)
Drive to COMPREHEND = satisfy curiosity, know, and understand we and the environment (work with different clients having different locations)
Drive to DEFEND = protect ourselves physically and socially (have your own workspace where you can stay alone)

How to use 4-drivers in the workplace? The jobs and workplaces should provide a balanced opportunity to fulfill the four drivers (= remember they counterbalance!!)

Limitations: More than 4 potential drivers? Social norms, personal values, personality traits, and past experience = not a full set of individual difference.

Question 10

3. Learned needs theory (motivation theories)

• definition
• 3 needs

Answer 10

Learned needs theory = needs can be strengthened or weakened (learned) through self-concept, social norms, and past experience. Introduced by David McClelland. Training can change a person’s need strength through reinforcement and altering their self-concept

3 NEEDS:

1. Need for achievement (nAch) = a learned need in which people want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals, desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success (Money is a weak motivator for people with high nAch).
2. Need for affiliation (nAff) = a learned need in which people seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation (leaders and decision-makers require a relatively low nAff).
3. Need for power (nPow) = a learned need in which people want to control their environment, including people and material resources to benefit (either themselves – by personalized power to advance their personal interests, or with others – through socialized power that is power as a means to help others, and advance the aims of your group)

Question 11

4. Expectancy theory (motivation theories)

• definition
• main contributions
• 3 expectancies
• limitations

Answer 11

Expectancy theory = a motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people have highest likelihood of desired outcomes.

The main contribution is that the previous theories explained what motivates us but didn’t explain what we are motivated to do (= expectancy theory provides us with clear guidelines to increase employee motivation). If motivation decreases in any one of these steps, overall motivation is weaker. They are all interconnected!!

3 EXPECTANCIES

1. Increase E-to-P expectancies: probability that a specific effort level will result in a specific performance level (intuitively, how much effort we need to put to achieve a certain level of performance)
   a. Hire or train staff and adjust job duties to skills
   b. Provide sufficient time and resources
   c. Provide coaching and behavioral modelling (examples of successful coworkers) to build self-efficacy
2. Increase P-to-O expectancies: probability that a specific performance level will result in specific outcomes
   a. Measure performance accurately
   b. Explain how rewards are linked to performance
   c. Provide examples of coworkers rewarded for performance
3. Increasing outcome valences: anticipated satisfaction from the outcome
   a. Ensure that rewards are valued
   b. Individualize rewards
   c. Minimize counter valent outcomes

Limitations: is mostly focused on extrinsic motivation, ignores emotions, and assumes that we are RATIONAL, doesn’t explain how employees develop expectancies.

Question 12

5. Goal-setting theory (motivation theories)

• definition
• how it improves employee performance
• effective goal setting (SMARTER)

Answer 12

Goal setting = the process of motivating individuals by clarifying their role perceptions through establishing performance objectives.

Goal setting potentially improves employee performance in 2 ways:

1. By amplifying the intensity and persistence of effort
2. By giving employees clearer role perceptions so their effort is channeled towards behaviors that will improve work performance,

Effective Goal-Setting features
S – Specific = what, how, where, when, and with whom the task needs to be accomplished
M – Measurable = how much, how well, at what cost
A – Achievable = challenging, yet possible (E-to-P)
R – Relevant = within employee’s control
T – Timeframes = due date and when assessed
E – Exciting = employee commitment, not just compliance
R – Reviewed = feedback and recognition on goal progress and accomplishment

Question 13

6. Effective feedback theory (motivation theories)

• definition (feedback)
• characteristics of effective feedback (SRTCF)

Answer 13

Feedback = information that lets us know whether we have achieved the goal or are properly directing our effect towards it. It is a critical partner of goal setting.

Effective feedback should be:

1. Specific = connected to goal details
2. Relevant = related to person’s behavior
3. Timely =info provided close to when the behavior occurs
4. Credible = trustworthy source
5. Sufficiently frequent = depending on employee’s knowledge or experience, task cycle

Question 14

Learning (ref. OB MOB theory)

• definition
• characteristics

Answer 14

Learning = a complex process of transformation at the end of which an individual finds that his/her knowledge, skills, abilities, and/or attitudes differ from what they were before.

1. The change that is produced is not temporary, but rather, persists over time, and produces a stable development of the individual.
2. Learning requires the utilization of physical, cognitive, and emotional energy
3. Learning  decision making, perceptions, personality, teamwork

Question 15

Organizational learning perspective (def)

Learning orientation (def)

Answer 15

= a perspective that holds that organizational effectiveness depends on the organization’s capacity to acquire, share, use, and store valuable knowledge.

= beliefs and norms that support the acquisition, sharing, and use of knowledge as well as work conditions that nurture these learning processes

Question 16

Learning orientation (def)

Answer 16

= beliefs and norms that support the acquisition, sharing, and use of knowledge as well as work conditions that nurture these learning processes

Question 17

OB MOD THEORY - 3 types of learning

Answer 17

Reactive learner = waiting for a teacher to explain the material and motivate them to learn
- BEHAVIORISM What a learner does
Proper response to a given stimulus (observable) –> Type of learning: Basic definitions and explanation of concepts, generalization, recall

Proactive learner = searching for additional info on the internet, practicing, attending trainings
- COGNITIVISM Processing of information
How the learned organizes new information within a pre-existing schema (internal) –> Type of learning: Higher level reasoning and information processing
Emphasis on memory and organization
- CONSTRUCTIVISM How the learner interprets the new information and applies it to their own reality –> Type of learning: Higher level problem solving and critical analysis
Emphasis on real-world scenarios

Question 18

OB MOD THEORY - Pavlov’s dog study

• experiment
• some definitions (stimulus/response)
• contributions to ob mod theory (behavior)

Answer 18

In the 1890s Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, was studying digestion in dogs. He was collecting and examining their saliva. The dogs located in a lab, waiting for someone to enter, and feed them

1. Prior to being fed, a bell would sound
2. At the early stages of the experiment, the dogs would salivate normally pre-feed
3. However, dogs got used to hearing the bell ring prior to being fed
4. Pavlov noticed the dogs would begin to salivate as soon as they heard the sound of the bell.

SOME DEFINITIONS:
Stimulus = any feature of the environment that affects behavior (e.g., food)
Response = the behavior elicited by the stimulus (e.g., salivation)
Unconditioned stimulus = a feature of the environment (e.g., meat)
Conditioned stimulus = a feature of the environment that has an affect through tis associated with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., bell)

CONCLUSIONS: Behavior is a set of reactions to external stimuli, to which we mechanically learn to respond; the individual plays a passive role in learning by being subject to automatic stimulus-response laws.

Professor Yang and her time teaching Monkeys

Question 19

Behaviorism (assumptions)

Answer 19

1. When we are born, our mind is a “tabula rasa” (= blank state)
2. Internal processes can be explained through external observable behaviors
3. All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple, stimulus-response association
4. There are no fundamental differences between human and animal behavior, therefore we can study animal responses, and make conclusions about humans (= comparative psychology)

Question 20

Behaviorism (OB MODIFICATION)

• definition
• antecedents vs consequences
• four consequences of the theory

Answer 20

Organizational behavior modification = a theory that explains employee behavior in terms of the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behavior

• Antecedents = events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a particular action will produce specific consequences. Antecedents don’t CAUSE behavior
• Consequences = events following a particular behavior that influence its future occurrence

4 OB Modification Consequences:
1- Positive reinforcement occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior – it is preferred to others, because it leverages the power of positive OB e.g., a manager allows an employee to go home early if he performed well in a task
2- Punishment occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior occurring e.g., a manager asks an employee to work longer hours if he didn’t perform well in a task
3- Extinction occurs when the target behavior decreases because no consequence follows it e.g., a manager doesn’t do anything if an employee performed well in a task
4- Negative reinforcement occurs when the removal or avoidance of a bad consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of specific behavior – it is opposite to punishment (removal of punishment) e.g., a manager doesn’t ask an employee to work longer hours if he performed will in a task

Question 21

OB MOD THEORY Schedule of reinforcement

Answer 21

= frequency and timing of reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement learning (= after every occurrence), most effective for learning new tasks
• Variable ratio schedule for motivation (= after a changing or varying number of times), most effective for motivating behavior (lasts longer, more resistant to extinction)