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BIOL 1101 Test 2 > Chapter 5-9 > Flashcards

Chapter 5-9 Flashcards

1
Q

nonsense mutation

A

A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.

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2
Q

Algae have the ability to capture the _______ of sunlight and convert it into usable forms of energy

A

energy

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3
Q

Biofuels are ________.

A

renewable fuels made from living organisms

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4
Q

Algae and plants get energy from

A

the sun

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5
Q

Biofuel produced is high in

A

chemical energy

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6
Q

potential energy

A

stored energy in chemical bonds

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7
Q

Kinetic Energy

A

the energy of motion or movement

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8
Q

Heat

A

the kinetic energy generated by random movement of molecules or atoms

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9
Q

Aerobic Respiration: Glycolysis

A

Occurs in the cytoplasm
* Series of reactions that breaks down sugar into smaller units (pyruvate)

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10
Q

electron transport chain

A

NAD+ molecules bring electrons to folds on the inner membrane of the mitochondria
* Electrons flow down a chain of molecules on the inner membrane of the mitochondria
* At the end of the chain, oxygen accepts the electrons and combines with hydrogen atoms to form water.
* The flow of electrons powers the production of most of the ATP in aerobic respiration.

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11
Q

Energy is never destroyed; it is only converted from

A

one form to another

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12
Q

dna in the form of a chromosome

A

single DNA molecule wrapped around proteins

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13
Q

Bases form internal

A

rungs

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14
Q

DNA replication produces two copies of the original

A

dna molecule

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15
Q

Natural process by which cells make an identical copy of a DNA molecule

A

DNA replication

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16
Q

We can use PCR to target

A

STRs

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17
Q

amino acids

A

building blocks of proteins

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18
Q

Gene expression has two steps:

A

Transcription involves converting DNA to RNA.
* Translation involves converting RNA to protein.

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19
Q

Translation

A

Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced

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20
Q

Mutations that occur in germ cells (reproductive cells) can be passed

A

on to the next generation.

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21
Q

Autotrophs

A

capture and transform the energy of sunlight by photosynthesis

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22
Q

Heterotrophs

A

obtain energy by eating other organisms

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23
Q

Light energy

A

the energy of the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation.

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24
Q

Light energy is made of particles called

A

photons, or packets of light energy

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25
Q

Photons of different wavelengths contain different amounts of

A

energy

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26
Q

Differences in wavelength are responsible for

A

color in visible light.

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27
Q

Chlorophyll

A

a pigment present in the green parts of plants.

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28
Q

Photons of light are absorbed by

A

chlorophyll

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29
Q

Excited electrons help generate an energy-carrying molecule known as

A

adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

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30
Q

ATP is used to make

A

sugar

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31
Q

carbon fixation

A

Photosynthesis captures carbon dioxide gas from the air and incorporates carbon atoms into sugar

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32
Q

What is obesity?

A

having an unhealthy amount of body fat

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33
Q

Body Mass Index (BMI) estimates

A

body fat based on height and weight

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34
Q

What causes obesity?

A

energy imbalance: taking in much more energy than we expend in our activities, over time.

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35
Q

calories (lowercase c)

A

the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C

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36
Q

Calories (capital C)

A

equal to 1000 calories, or 1 kilocalorie (kcal)

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37
Q

How does the body use macromolecules in food?

A

The body digests macromolecules into building blocks or subunits.

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38
Q

The body uses these subunits:

A

-to make new molecules.
- as sources of energy

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39
Q

Macromolecules contain different amounts of

A

stored energy

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40
Q

Different activities require different amounts of energy.
Not everyone burns Calories at the same rate. What has an effect?

A

Genetics, muscle mass, and gender

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41
Q

A healthy diet includes

A

balancing calories from food with calories burned.

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42
Q

An imbalance of energy in and out can lead to

A

weight gain or weight loss.

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43
Q

nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT)

A

Energy expenditure through daily activities outside of structured exercise, such as walking, completing household chores, and taking the stairs.

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44
Q

To use energy from food, we need to convert it into an energy “currency.”
The most commonly used form is the molecule

A

adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).

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45
Q

ATP is spent when?

A

anytime during muscle contractions, or neuron fires.

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46
Q

How do cells extract energy from food?

A

aerobic respiration

47
Q

aerobic respiration

A

-a series of reactions that converts stored food energy into ATP
* occurs in the presence of oxygen

48
Q

Blood transports ___________ from food and oxygen from the lungs.

A

glucose

49
Q

Cell releases energy from glucose and captures it in

A

ATP

50
Q

Blood transports excess carbon dioxide to the lungs and water to the kidneys.

A

True

51
Q

A three-stage process that takes place in different parts of the cell

A
  1. glycolysis
  2. citric acid cycle
  3. electron transport chain
52
Q

citric acid cycle

A

Series of reactions that helps extract energy (high-energy electrons) from food
* NAD+ picks up and transfers electrons
* Releases carbon dioxide

53
Q

occurs in the absence of oxygen

A

Glycolysis

54
Q

With no oxygen, aerobic respiration stops, and an anaerobic process called

A

fermentation

55
Q

Products now undergo fermentation in the cytoplasm instead of

A

aerobic respiration in mitochondria.

56
Q

lactic acid

A

product of fermentation in many types of cells, including human muscle cells

57
Q

Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, which is made up of

A

linked chains of glucose molecules.

58
Q

Glycogen is used in our body as

A

short term energy storage

59
Q

Triglycerides are

A

a type of lipid found in fat cells.

60
Q

Cells convert fats, amino acids, and sugars into

A

triglycerides.

61
Q

Triglycerides are used for

A

long term energy storage

62
Q

Photosynthesis and respiration form a continuous cycle, with the outputs of one process serving as

A

the inputs of the other

63
Q

DNA-

A

heredity molecule that is passed from parents to offspring
serves as an instruction manual for how to build an individual
Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells

64
Q

Humans have how many pairs of chromosomes?

A

23

65
Q

One chromosome from each pair is inherited

A

from the biological mother, and the other from the father.

66
Q

23rd pair of chromosomes generally determines

A

sex

67
Q

One chromosome from each pair is inherited

A

from the biological mother, and the other from the father.

68
Q

Genome

A

Complete set of genetic instructions encoded in all the chromosomes of an organism

69
Q

DNA is composed of

A

nucleotides

70
Q

Each nucleotide consists of

A

sugar, phosphate, base

71
Q

Two strands of nucleotides pair up and twist around each other to form a

A

spiral-shaped double helix.

72
Q

Sugars and phosphates form the outside

A

backbone

73
Q

Nucleotides have one of four
bases:

A

Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C)

74
Q

Each molecule consists of one of the strands of the original DNA molecule

A

and a new strand.

75
Q

PCR (polymerase chain reaction)

A

a laboratory technique scientists use to amplify (replicate) a specific DNA segment to study it.

76
Q

DNA profiling

A

allows us to identify the unique characteristics in the DNA of a person.

77
Q

short tandem repeats (STRs)

A

a good type of DNA segment to use for DNA profiling.

78
Q

STRs are in the same places along

A

chromosomes

79
Q

The length of the STR region can vary from

A

person to person

80
Q

This allows us to “fingerprint” people based on their

A

DNA

81
Q

Making a DNA profile

A

. Collect cells and extract DNA
2. Use PCR to amplify multiple STR regions
3. Separate STRs using gel electrophoresis
4. Compare STR banding patterns

82
Q

spider silk has a higher toughness than

A

steel or kevlar

83
Q

What is a protein?

A

a macromolecule made of repeating amino acid subunits.

84
Q

amino acid sequence

A

Amino acids bond together to form a linear chain.
* Chain folds into a 3-D protein based on the sequence of amino acids
* Changing an amino acid in the sequence changes the 3-D shape of the protein
* Shape of the protein determines its function

85
Q

Genes encode instructions for _______

A

proteins

86
Q

Synthesis of a protein from a gene is called

A

gene expression

87
Q

Genes have two parts

A

regulatory sequences and coding sequences

88
Q

Transcription occurs in

A

in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.

89
Q

Translation occurs on

A

ribosomes in the cytoplasm

90
Q

Transcription

A

molecules of messenger RNA (mRNA) are synthesized from the instructions encoded in genes

91
Q

Transcription

A

RNA polymerase binds to the regulatory sequence of the genes coding region.

92
Q

universal genetic code

A

Set of rules relating particular mRNA codons to particular amino acids
* 64 possible codons code for 20 different amino acids

93
Q

genetic engineering

A

Genetic engineering: manipulating the genome of a living organism
* Organisms that have received recombinant genes are considered transgenic or genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

94
Q

recombinant gene

A

a gene that contains parts of different genes that aren’t found together in nature

95
Q

sickle cell disease

A

People with sickle cell disease have differently shaped red blood cells that do not flow well through blood vessels.

96
Q

Beta-globin is a part of hemoglobin, which carries

A

oxygen in red blood cells.

97
Q

gene therapy

A

influencing genes to reduce or eliminate the effects of a genetic disorder

98
Q

Mutations

A

changes in DNA sequence

99
Q

Point mutations are

A

substituting one nucleotide for another

100
Q

Frameshift mutations

A

change in the reading frame of a
gene

101
Q

rearranged DNA mutations

A

sections of DNA move

102
Q

silent mutation

A

A mutation that changes a single nucleotide, but does not change the amino acid created.

103
Q

missense mutation

A

A base-pair substitution that results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid.

104
Q

insertion mutation

A

a mutation in which one or more nucleotides are added to a gene

105
Q

deletion mutation

A

a mutation in which one or more pairs of nucleotides are removed from a gene

106
Q

inversion mutation

A

Mutation in which a chromosome piece reattaches to original chromosome but in reverse orientation

107
Q

translocation mutation

A

mutation in which one part of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another

108
Q

Mutagen

A

A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.

109
Q

Viral vector approach

A

an altered virus inserts healthy versions of the gene into the genome of patients

110
Q

Viral Vector Approach steps

A

Remove stem cells, which form red blood cells, from the patient.
The virus inserts the normal gene into the stem cells, which get incorporated into the cells’ chromosomes.
Culture the cells that now have the normal version of the beta-globin gene.
Introduce the modified cells into the patient.
* The modified cells produce the normal version of beta- globin, preventing symptoms of sickle-cell disease.

111
Q

gene switch approach

A

focuses on changing gene expression

112
Q

Precise Gene Editing-

A
113
Q

Precise Gene Editing-

A

CRISPR is a relatively precise method of making changes to existing genes.
* CRISPR is under development and may be used in the future.
An enzyme cuts DNA at a target sequence, such as beta-globin with the sickle cell mutation.
* The enzyme contains RNA with the a sequence that matches with the target DNA.
The mutated DNA is removed.
* A normal version of the DNA is introduced.
* Repair enzymes insert the normal version of DNA into the chromosome.
Alternatively, CRISPR can be used to inactivate a gene without replacing it with another version.

BIOL 1101 Test 2 (2 decks)

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