Chapter 5

Question 1

Define employee engagement and explain.

Answer 1

1. Employee engagement refers to an individuals emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent and purposive effort toward work-related goals.

• It is an emotional involvement in, commitment to, and satisfaction with the work.
• High levels of absorption in the work.
• Self-efficacy - the belief that you have the ability, role clarity and resources to get the job done.
• Predicts employee and work unit performance

Question 2

Define drives and explain how they motivate us.

(2)

Answer 2

1. Drives are hardwired characteristics of the brain that correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium by producing emotions to energize individuals.

• eg. drive for social interaction, for competence, to defend ourselves from harm.
• Innate and universal

2. Drives are the starting point of motivation because they generate emotions which put people in a state of readiness to act on their environment.

Question 3

Define needs.

Answer 3

1. Needs are goal-directed forces that people experience.
   * They are the motivational forces of emotions channeled toward particular goals to correct deficiencies or imbalances.

Question 4

Explain how individual differences in needs arise and describe how drives, needs and behaviors are related to each other.

Answer 4

1. People develop different intensities of needs because their self-concept, social norms, and past experience amplify or suppress emotions, thereby resulting in stronger or weaker needs.
   * Therefore, needs can be learnt to some extent.
2. These also regulate a person’s motivated decisions and behavior.
3. Drives result in emotions which energise you to act, and self-concept, social norms and past experience direct that energy toward goal-directed behavior.

Question 5

Define and elaborate on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Answer 5

1. Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation controlled by the individual and experienced from the activity itself.
   * Intrinsic motivation occurs when people seek need fulfillment from doing the activity itself, not as a means to some other outcome.
2. Extrinsic motivation occurs when people are motivated to receive something that is beyond their personal control for instrumental reasons.

• They direct their effort toward a reward controlled by others that indirectly fulfills a need.
• Eg performance bonuses, recognition awards

Question 6

Explain how extrinsic motivation may enhance or diminish intrinsic motivation.

Answer 6

1. Additive view suggests that someone performing an intrinsically motivating job becomes even more motivated by also receiving an extrinsic source of motivation for that work.
2. Alternatively, introducing extrinsic sources of motivation may reduce instrinsic motivation because it diminishes the employee’s feeling of autonomy which is a key source of intrinsic motivation.
   * Although, this effect is rare and minimal

Question 7

Define learned needs theory, list and describe the 3 learned needs and give an example of how they can be changed.

(5)

Answer 7

1. People’s needs can be strengthened or weakened through reinforcement, learning and social conditions.
   * Three main types of learned needs: achievement, affiliation and power.
2. Need for achievement: (nAch)

• People with a strong need for achievement want to accompish reasonably challenging goals and desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success.
• Money is a weak motivator except as feedback.

3. Need for affiliation: (nAff)

• Refers to a desire to seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation.
• People with high nAff try to portray a favorable image of themselve.

4. Need for power: (nPow)

• People with a high need for power want to exercise control over others and are concerned about maintaining their leadership position.
• Individuals who enjoy power for its own sake and use it to advance personal interests and wear it as a status symbol have personalised power.
• Socialised power is the desire for power to help others.

5. Changing (Learning) Need Strength:

• The strength of needs can be changed
• Eg. participants were asked to write achievement-oriented stories, practice achievement oriented behaviors in business games. These training programs increased achievement motivation by altering participants’ self-concept and reinforcing their achievement experiences.

Question 8

Define the 4 drive theory and list the drives and describe them.

(5)

Answer 8

1. Four drive theory states that emotions are the source of human motivation and emotions are generated through 4 innate and universal drives.
2. Drive to acquire:

• This is the drive to seek out, take, control and retain objects and personal experiences.
• Comparable to nAch and motivates us to compete.

3. Drive to bond:

• This drive is a variation of the need for belonging and affiliation.
• This drive to bond motivates people to cooperate and, consequently, is essential for organisations and societies.

4. Drive to comprehend:
   * This is similar to Maslow’s primary need to know. People are ingerently curious and need to make sense of their environment and themselves.
5. Drive to defend:
   * This is the drive to protect ourselves physically, psychologically and socially.

Question 9

Explain how drives influence motivation and behavior and the role of social norms, past experience and personal values.

(3)

Answer 9

1. The 4 drives determine which emotions are tagged incoming stimuli.
2. It states that our social norms, past experience, and personal values direct the motivational force of our emotions to decisions and behaviors that potentially reduce that tension.
3. This “mental skill set” develops behavioral intentions that are acceptable to society, consistent with our own moral compass, and have a high proability of fulfilling those needs.

Question 10

State 2 practical implications of the 4-drive theory.

Answer 10

1. Jobs and workplaces should provide a balanced opportunity to fulfill the four drives.
2. Organisations should avoid too much or too little oppportunity to fulfill each drive as the 4 drives counterbalance each other

Question 11

Define expectancy theory and the 3 features of the model.

(1, 2-3)

Answer 11

1. Expectancy theory states that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe has the highest probability of achieving the desired outcomes.
2. Individual effort depends on 3 factors:

• E-to-P expectancy: The individual’s perception that his/her effort will result in a particular level of performance. (Probability 0-1.0)
• P-to-O expectancy: The individuals belief that a specific behavior or performance level will lead to a particular outcome. (Probability 0-1.0)
• Outcome valences: The anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels toward an outcome.
  
  • Outcomes have a positive valence when they are consistent with our values and satisfy our needs
  • Have a negative valence when they oppose our values and inhibit our fulfilment

Question 12

State how each link in expectancy theory can be influenced to motivate performance.

(3)

Answer 12

1. Increasing E-to-P expectancies:

• Influenced by an individual’s belief that he or she can successfully complete the task.
• eg. Matching employee abilities to job requirements and clearly communicating the tasks required for the job
• Behavior modelling and supportive feedback

2. Increasing P-to-O Expectancies:

• Measure performance accurately and distribute more valued rewards to those with higher job performance.
• Make employees believe that higher perfomance results in greater rewards.

3. Increasing Outcome Valences

• Different people want different rewards because people have different needs.
• One solution is to individualise rewards by allowing employees to choose the rewards of greatest value to them.

Question 13

List 3 limitations of expectancy theory.

Answer 13

1. Expectancy theory only explains extrinsic motivation but not intrinsic motivation.
2. Ignores emotions as a source of motivation.
3. Doesn’t explain how employees develop these expectancies.

Question 14

Define organisational behavior modification, antecedents and consequences.

(2)

Answer 14

1. Organisational behavior modification (OB Mod) is a theory that explains employee behavior in terms of antecedent conditions and consequences of that behavior.
2. Attempts to change behavior (B) by managing its antecedents (A) and consequences (C).

• Antecedents are events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a particular action will produce specific consequences.
• Consequences are events that occur following a particular behavior that influence its future occurence.

Question 15

List the 4 types of contingencies of reinforcement and define them.

(5)

Answer 15

1. OB Mod identifies four types of consequences, positive reinforcement, punishment, extinction, negative reinforcement.
2. Positive reinforcement occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency of future probability of a specific behavior.
   * Preferred because focussing on the positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational sucess and individual well-being (Positive OB)
3. Punishment occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior.
   * May be necessary for extreme behaviors like stealing or hurting other coworkers.
4. Extinction consequence occurs when the target behavior decreases because no consequence follows it.
   * Eg. performance tends to decline when managers stop congratulating employees for good work.
5. Negative reinforcement occurs when the removal or avoidance of a consequenc increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior. (usually removal of punishment)

Question 16

Define schedules of reinforcement, continuous reinforcement, variable ratio schedule and give 2 limitations of OB Mod.

(1, 2-1, 3-3, 4 -1, 5)

Answer 16

1. Schedules of reinforcement refer to the frequency and timing of these reinforcers.
2. Continuous reinforcement means providing positive reinforcement after every occurence of the desired behavior.
   * Most effective for learning new tasks.
3. Variable ratio schedule refers to behavior reinforcement after a variable number of times.

• Best schedule for motivating people (outside of learning)
• Makes behavior highly resistent to extinction because the reinforcer is never expected at a particular time or fixed number of accomplishments
• However, may be seen as a lottery which is too informal for most work settings.

4. One limitation is “reward inflation” in which the reinforcer is eventually considered an entitlement.
   * Therefore, most OB Mod programs are infrequent and short
5. Another limitation is that it doesn’t account for how people learn and are motivated by observing others and inferring possible consequences of their action. (Social cognitive theory)

Question 17

Define social cognitive theory and explain how people learn behavior consequences, engage in behavior modeling and self-regulation.

State how OB Mod and SCT link to expectancy theory.

(1, 2-1, 3-1, 4-2,5)

Answer 17

1. Social cognitive theory states that learning occurs by observing and modeling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behavior.
2. Learning Behavior consequences:
   * People learn the consequences of behavior by observing or hearing about what happened to other poeple, not just by directly experiencing the consequences.
3. Behavior modeling

• Along with directly observing others, people learn by imitating and practicing their behaviors.
• Behavior modelling also increases self-efficacy because people gain more self-confidence after observing others and performing the task successfully themselves.
• Self-efficacy particularly improves when observers are similar to the model in age and other general features.

4. Self-regulation

• SCT holds that humans set goals, plan to meet them and engage in other forms of intentional purposive action.
• People regulate by engaging in self-reinforcement where they reward and punish themselves for exceeding or falling short of their self-set standards of excellence.

5. OB Mod and SCT explain how people learn probabilities of successful performance as well as probabilities of various outcomes from that performance.

Question 18

Define goal setting and explain how it improves employee performance.

Answer 18

1. Goal setting is the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives. Improves performance by:

• Amplifying the intensity and persistence of effort.
• Giving employees clearer role perceptions so their effort is channeled toward behaviors that will improve work performance.

Question 19

List and describe each characteristic of SMARTER goals.

(1-2, 2-1, 3-3, 4-1, 5-1, 6-2, 7-2)

Answer 19

1. Specific

• Specific goals state what needs to be accomplished, how, where, when, and with whom.
• Specific goals clarify performance expectations so employees can direct their efforts more efficiently and reliably.

2. Measureable
   * Goals need to be measurable so employees have a clear indication of their progress and achievement. (Quantity and quality)
3. Achievable

• Goals must be sufficently but not overly challenging.
• Goals which are too challenging may reduce effort because of low E-to-P expectancy and easy goals are a waste of potential.
• Employees may resort to unethical behavior if goals are too challenging.

4. Relevant
   * Goals need to relevant to the individual’s job and within the person’s control.
5. Time-Framed
   * Have a due date.
6. Exciting

• Goals are more effective if employees are excited by them because they tend to fulfil a person’s growth needs more when achieved.
• This increases commitment

7. Reviewed

• Motivational value of goal setting depends on employees receiving feedback about reach those goals.
• It is also a potential source of recognition that fulfills growth needs.

Question 20

Define feedback and describe the characteristics of good feedback.

(1,2,3,4, 5-2)

Answer 20

1. Feedback is information that lets us know whether we have acheved our goal or are properly directing our efforts toward it.
2. Specific and relevant: by referring to specific metrics that relate to employees’ behavior and is within their control.
3. Timely: The information should be available soon after the behavior or the results occur so that employees see a clear association between their actions and the consquences.
4. Should come from a credible source.
5. Sufficiently frequent: Depends on employee’s knowledge and experience with the task.

• Employees working on new tasks should receive more frequent feedback because they need more guidance.
• Jobs with long cycle times need less frequent feedback because progress usually takes longer (scientists and executives)

Question 21

Define Strengths-based coaching and explain how it may be more effective that traditional performance reviews.

(1, 2-2)

Answer 21

1. Strengths-based coaching is a positive organisational behavior approach to coaching and feedback that focuses on building and leveraging the employee’s strengths rather than trying to correct his or her weaknesses.
2. More motivating than traditional performance reviews because:

• Employees seek out feedback about their strengths but are defensive about their weaknesses. (Consistent with self-enhancement)
• Strength-based coaching recognises that poor performance is due more to motivation than ability.

Question 22

Define multisource feedback and explain its advantages and disadvantages.

(1-5)

Answer 22

1. Multisource (360) feedback is information about an employee’s performance that is collected from a full circle of people: subordinates, peers, supervisors and customers.

• Provides more complete and accurate information than feedback from a supervisor alone.
• More fair and encourages open communication if subordinates get to feedback about their boss
• May be ambiguous because sources may contradict
• Peers may inflate opinions to minimise conflict
• Receiving negative feedback from multiple sources can be more emotionally damaging

Question 23

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of nonsocial and social sources of feedback.

(1-2, 2)

Answer 23

1. Feedback from nonsocial sources like (like computer print outs) is preferred when employees need to learn about goal progress and accomplishment.

• Nonsocial sources are considered more accurate and less damaging to self-esteem if feedback is negative
• Social sources may distort or reduce negative information to prevent hurt feelings

2. Employees should receive positive feedback from social sources because it feels better.

Question 24

Define distributive justice, equity principle, equity theory, outcome-input ratio, outcomes and inputs.

Answer 24

1. Distributive justice refers to perceived fairness in the outcomes we receive compared to our contributions and the outcomes and contributions of others.
2. Equity principle infers that people should be paid in proportion to their contributions.

• Equity theory states that employees determine feelings of equity by comparing their own outcome-input ratio to those of others.
• Outcome-input ratio = value of the outcomes receive/ inputs provided
• Outcomes: pay, promotion, recognition, interesting jobs
• Inputs: Skill, effort, reputation, performance, hours worked.

Question 25

Define equity condition, underreward inequity situation, overreward inequity condition.

Answer 25

1. Equity condition: We believe that our outcome-input ratio is similar to the ratio of the comparison other.
2. Underreward inequity situation: We believe our outcome-input ratio is lower than the comparison other’s ratio.
3. Overreward inequity condition: Our own ratio of outcomes-inputs is higher than the comparison other’s ratio.

Question 26

Explain why and how under- or over- rewarded employees reduce inequity tension.

Answer 26

1. When people believe they are under- or over-rewarded, they experience negative emotions called inequity tensions and are motivated to reduce it.
2. Underrewarded employees may reduce their inputs to make their ratio equal to other employees by working more slowly, offering fewer suggestions, engging in less organisational behavior.

• They may also increase their outcomes by asking for a raise.
• They may increase comparison other’s input by asking them to do more work.
• They may decrease comparison other’s outcomes by ensuring that the coworker gets less desirable jobs or working conditions.
• May change our beliefs, change comparison, or leave

2. Overrewarded employees may work harder, encourage underrewarded coworkers to work more slowly, or change their perception to justify their outcomes.

Question 27

Define procedural justice and give 3 ways in which it can be improved and the consequences of procedural injustice.

Answer 27

1. Procedural justice refers to fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources.
2. Procedural justice can be improved by giving employees a “voice” in the process; encourage them to present their facts and perspectives on the issue.
3. Procedural justice is also higher when the decision maker is perceived as unbiased, relies on complete and accurate information, applies policies consistently and listens to all sides of the dispute.
4. People feel less injustice when they are given a full explanation of the decision and are treated with respect througout the complaint process.
5. Employees may engage in counterproductive behavior out of anger to educate the decision maker if they feel they experience procedural injustice.