chapter 5, 7, 9, 6 Flashcards
Baddeley’s multicomponent model consists of?
- phonological loop
- visuospatial sketchpad
- episodic buffer
- central executive
phonological loop
responsible for processing verbal and auditory info
temporal lobe
- phonological store: a temporary storehouse (inner ear)
- articulatory loop: for active rehearsal (inner voice)
evidence of phonological loop
- syllabic word length effect: word span for longer words is smaller than for shorter words, harder to rmb words with more syllables than fewer syllables
- articulatory word length effect: processing can be affected by articulation duration (apart from the number of syllables)
- articulatory suppression: results in a reduced verbal span when people speak while simultaneously trying to remember a set of items
- irrelevant speech effect: phonological loop is less efficient when there is irrelevant speech in the background, even if it is in a language people do not understand
- phonological similarity effect: phonologically similar items are more likely to lead to errors
visuospatial sketchpad
- responsible for visual information → size and colour
- and spatial info → relative orientation
- involves more of the right than left hemisphere
- main tasks: construction, maintenance, and manipulation of mental images
mental rotation
- the greater the degree of rotation, the longer it takes to do
- reflects embodied cognition
boundary extension
memory for details beyond what is seen
- like beyond the TV screen
dynamic memory
- interpretation of real or perceived motion
- even when we look away or blink, we assume the object is still in motion even if we do not see it
representational momentum
a bias for people to misremember the location or orientation of an object further along its path of travel than where it actually was the last time it was seen
representational gravity
memory for object positions tends to be distorted toward the Earth
representational friction
moving objects slow down when moving along another object
episodic buffer
where multimodal information from different parts of working memory are combined or bound together
- a limited capacity storage system that brings together information from other parts of working memory as well as LTM
- binds info about verbal, auditory, visual, and spatial and this forms a more cohesive and coherent memory (episodic memory, and event)
central executive
the control centre, has additional capacity to devote to a subsystem if needed
- involved in allocation of attention
- actively processes info/manipulate contents of phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
- distributes memory resources
- focus
- divide
- switch
dysexecutive syndrome
people lose some central executive functions
- perseveration: when people have been doing a task one way and need to do it another way, but the switch is not made
- distraction: when people are supposed to be attending to one task, but some elements of the environment take attention away from it
- illustrates the lack of attentional control
name and explain the span tasks
reading span test: read aloud 2-6 sentences, at the end of each set, recall the last word
comprehension span test: read sentences and make sensibility judgments (does the sentence make sense), recall the last word in each set
operation span test: read aloud 2-step math problem then indicate whether the solution is correct, after that a word is presented, recall as many words from the set as possible
spatial span test: series of letters are shown that have been rotated, initial task is to indicate if the letter is normal or mirror image, then indicate where the top of the letter was pointing
n-back task
people view a series of items, such as letters, digits, pictures, etc. For each item, people must indicate “yes” or “no” whether the current item is the same as the one n items back
lexicality effect
words are remembered better than non-words
episodic memory
memories for events that we experieced
mental time travel
form of human episodic memory that allows the mind to recollect the specific time and place of a past event in one’s personal history (Tulving) can also be done for predicting future events
levels of representation
- surface: captures verbatim text (decays rapidly)
- text base: abstract representation of text, meaning or context (shows decline between 1-7 days later)
- mental model: represent the state of affairs described by the text rather than the text itself, 5Ws 1 H (durable)
episodic retrieval cues
- feature cue: involve components of memory itself (self-reference)
- context cue: things in the environment (smell)
effectiveness of cue depends on how diagnostic the cue is not the degree of overlap with the original cue
encoding specificity principle
superior ability to remember when the retrieval context matches the encoding context
state-dependent memory
memory is better when we are in a similar physiological state during recall as we were during learning
mood-dependent memory
memory is better if we are in the same mood we were in when we learned the information as when we try to rmb it
mood-congruent memory
easier to think of things that are consistent with one’s current mood
- words read in emotional positive or negative contexts were accompanied by more activation in brain regions associated with emotion such as the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex
Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) effect
a conventional experimental methodology for examining false memories
- this paradigm involves the presentation of associated words (bed, rest, etc.), which induce a false recall and/or false recognition of a non-presented word (critical lure; sleep)
transfer appropriate processing
memory is better when retrieval uses mental processes that are more in tune with those used at learning
massed practice
when there is a single, lengthy study period
distributed practice
when effort is spread out across multiple study periods
- better for LTM
- better if the space in between is bigger
why distributed > massed
- consolidation account: massed practice is inferior bc consolidation has not run its course, in distributed practice, there is more consolidation
- deficient-processing account: massed practice reflects a processing deficiency, get habituated during massed prac, more mind wandering, we assume that info is alr learned and do not devote time and effort to actually learn it
- contextual variability account: differences in the variability of the contexts stored with the memories is what accounts for the differences in massed and distributed practice, different contexts allow for more retrieval pathways
- study phase retrieval account: when we have subsequent study sessions, this reminds us of prior sessions allowing connections to be made btwn them
schedules of practice
- uniform
- expanding
- contracting
Von Restorff effect
isolation effect
- among similar items, distinctive items are remembered better
- leverages on item-specific processing
retrieval practice (tetsting) effect
memory is better if ppl practise retrieval after initial study than if they simply restudy
what happens if there is feedback/none when testing?
no feedback –> direct effect, forgetting decreases
feedback –> indirect effect, increase in metacognitive awareness, increased benefit from re-encoding, forgetting decreases and retention increases
elaborative retrieval hypothesis
the testing effect occurs bc testing causes ppl to engage in deeper processing while taking the test
- increases retrieval routes
episodic context account
retrieval reinstates prior learning context, updates the contextual representations with current context to constrain future search
- make new retrieval pathway for every new context learned in
relational processing hypothesis
involves making connections, help organise material and improve performance, helpful in generating a retrieval plan
bifurcation model
attempts to account for direct effect (without effect during testing phase)
dual memory framework
separated memories are formed during study and retrieval practice phases that increase retrieval routes
fuzzy trace theory
different traces capture different info, multiple traces work together to contribute to what is remembered
adaptive memory
evolutionary pressures, memories evolve to serve particular environmental issues
- ppl respond faster to words based on their subjective level of danger or usefulness
animacy effect
bias for rmbing animate objects better than inanimate
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
event-based prospective memory
a need to rmb to do smthg when some event occurs
- influenced by the relation btwn the event that signals you to rmb the action
- better if the event and action are more related → like write needle when you hear thread
- harder when there are multiple cues → need to watch out for more cues, only when all is present then you do the action, then u get distracted
time-based prospective memory
need to rmb to do smthg at a certain time or after a certain time interval
- rmb to call someone at a certain time (meeting etc)
- harder than event-based → bc theres no physical cue in the environment its a concept of time
- improve time-based by making it event-based → setting a buzzer (buzzer acts as a event that u are looking out for)
- ppl make more errors if the task is repetitive
location-based prospective memory
do smthg when they are in a particular place
- change in location acts as a cue
- focal: part of on-going task
- non-focal: not part of on-going task → here, attention is divided, some cognitive control is needed
activity-based prospective memory
do smthg upon completion of an activity
difference between prospective and retrospective memory
involves
- monitoring the environment for the cue
- rmb what to do in the future
- retrieve the memory of what to do
- actually do it
- requires more cognitive control
episodic future thinking
involved when we imagine or plan for what may happen in the future
constructive episodic simulation hypothesis
using prior episodic memories of similar experiences to guide what we imagine the future will be like
semantic memory
general world knowledge
conceptual knowledge
knowledge that enables us to recognise objects and events and make inferences about their properties
category
a set of entities that can be treated as though they are equivalent
concept
mental representation of a category
taxonomic relations
based on shared features
thematic relations
based on co-occurrences, the overall themes, these set of items occur together
- faster than taxonomic
- more for abstract concepts
levels of categorisation
basic –> the one we think of most of the time
subordinate –> most detailed
superordinate –> least detailed
classical view of categorisation
idea that categories are defined by necessary and sufficient features
- necessary: features must be present
- sufficient: if they are present, they are a member, additional features are unnecessary
problems with classical view of categorisation
- not all categories have the same set of necessary and sufficient features
- does not account for family resemblance
- does not account for central tendency
- category membership is graded
prototype view of categorisation
categories are defined by a mental representation that is an average of all category members, decisions are based on how close an example is to the prototype
problems with the prototype view
- conveys only central tendency
- no concept of category size and variability
- caricatures can facilitate categorisation than prototypes
- circular
exemplar view of categorisation
people use all category members to make decisions
- sensitive to context
- sensitive to frequency and central tendency
problem with exemplar view
circular
explanation-based view of categorisation
categories are theories or explanations
- ppl use knowledge to understand how the members of a category form a coherent grp
- ppl place more emphasis on causes rather than effects
→ grp things based on what it does (function) or what it can do
psychological essentialism
the idea that members of a category share an underlying essence, of which we may or may not be aware → this leads to having stereotypes and prejudices
what are ordered relations?
- semantic distance effect: ppl make judgments faster abt the order of 2 concepts as the distance btwn them increases → the difference is more obvious so its easy to discriminate them
- semantic congruity effect: when the direction of the comparison coincides with the location of the stimuli on the continuum (smaller is on the left)
- serial position effect: ppl are faster to make judgements about 2 or more concepts at the extremes of a dimension than those in the middle → easier to see that ant is smaller than a mouse vs a sheep and dog bc ant is rly rly rly v small so is cnfm smaller than wtv alr
- SNARC effect: judgments about smaller numbers (whether they are odd or even) are faster with the left hand and faster for bigger numbers with the right hand
SNARC
spatial-numerical associative response codes
schema
highly organised general knowledge structure for a familiar domain
script
temporally ordered schemas that are structured according to the major components of the event
operations of a schema
SAIIR
selection: identify what is relevant
abstraction: convert info to a more abstract and basic form (to capture underlying meaning)
interpretation: fill in the gaps
integration: guide to put the pieces together
reconstruction: recreate the initial memory but paraphrased with additional info and details (filled in gaps)
nondeclarative memory
collection of various forms of memory that operate automatically and accumulate information that is not accessible to conscious recollection
eg
- conditioning
- procedural skills
- priming
implicit memory
memory for a previous event or experience that is produced indirectly without an explicit request to recall the event and without awareness that memory is involved
how to assess implicit memory
- priming
- lexical decision
- word-stem/word-fragment completion
- perceptual identification
stages of skill acquisition
CAA
cognitive stage: consciously and deliberately perform the actions of the task
associative stage: can retrieve the knowledge needed to do the task more quickly
autonomous stage: largely unconscious
triarchic theory of skill learning
MCR
metacognitive system –> most engaged when we first learn new skill (cognitive stage)
cognitive control system –> (associative stage)
representation system –> neurons get more wired together (autonomous stage)
positive transfer
learning of one skill facilitates learning of another skill
negative transfer
learning of one skill interferes with the earning of another skill (like proactive interference)
