Chapter 5 Flashcards
what is consciousness?
-a persons subjective awareness
-includes thoughts, perceptions, experiences of the world, and self-awareness
-it is very unclear what is conscious and what is unconscious
what are the 2 main approaches to the idea of consciousness?
-some believe it is just an illusion produced by the brain
-others believe that there is neural correlation
what are the 2 divisions of the neural correlation approach to conciousness?
-certain structures give rise to consciousness
-consciousness is just an emergent property of the brain operating in its entirety (just happens, not tied to a specific structure)
what are circadian rhythms?
-biological rhythms with a 24 periodicity
-sleep follows a circadian rhythm
what are the 2 main things that help us stay on a schedule with sleep?
-entrainment
-endogenous rhythms
what is entrainment?
-synchronization between biological rhythms and external cues
what is another name for external cues?
-zeitgebers
-refers to environmental cues such as light or temperature
what are the possible external cues that keep us on a sleep schedule?
-light (gets dark at night when we sleep)
-temp (gets cold at night when we sleep)
-clock (if we begin to feel sleepy and we look at the clock and it is still too early, we will delay sleep)
what is the process of light entrainment?
-specialized ganglion cells of the retina that connect to photoreceptors detect the slow changing levels of background illumination
-these cells are then connected to the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus receives the light information
-light signals are also communicated to the brain via the optic nerve to the optic chiasm
-the SCN innervates the pineal gland which stimulates the release of melatonin
-melatonin accumulates with darkness and the onset of sleep
what can interfere with the entrainment of light?
-blue light emitted by technology
what does the suprachiasmatic nucleus act as in the body?
-internal clock (pacemaker)
what is the optic chiasm?
-crossover point for visual signals
what are endogenous rhythms?
-biological circadian rhythms in our body that are not influenced by zeitgebers
-often genetic feedback loops
what is a genetic feedback loop?
-proteins that get created by genes buildup and eventually shut off the gene at a certain point
-self regulates
what are the 2 hypothesis on why we sleep?
-restore and repair hypothesis
-preserve and protect hypothesis
what is the restore and repair hypothesis?
-sleep is meant to restore energy levels and allow for repairs on the body from the days activities
-referred to as physiological “housekeeping”
what evidence in the body backs up the restore and repair hypothesis?
-protein synthesis increases during sleep
-brain ventricle fluid is more active (clears out toxins)
what is the preserve and protect hypothesis?
-sleep preserves energy and protects the individual organism from harm
-night is dark and can be a more harm causing time of day
what evidence is there to back up the preserve and protect hypothesis?
-sleep differences between predator and prey
-prey sleep less and in broken periods of time so they can be on watch for the predators
-predators sleep more and unbroken because they have no threats in the environment
-migratory birds brain hemispheres sleep separately
what are the different stages of sleep? how do you go through these cycles?
-awake
-awake and calm
-stage 1
-stage 2
-stage 3 + 4
-REM
-begin in 1 and go to 4, then back up to 1 and then into REM and back down (cyclical process)
what are the brain waves called in the awake mind? how do they appear?
-beta waves
-low amplitude + high frequency
what are the brain waves called in the awake and calm mind? how do they appear? what state is the body in?
-alpha waves
-slightly higher amplitude and frequency compared to the awake mind
-drowsy state with a loss of attention
what are the brain waves called in stage 1 of sleep? how do they appear? what happens to the body in this state?
-theta waves
-slightly higher amplitude and frequency compared to the awake and calm mind
-breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure decrease
what is present in the brain waves of stage 2 sleep? how do they appear? what happens to the brain in this state?
-K complexes (higher amplitude and larger wave length)
-waves are called sleep spindles (brief bursts in activity)
-brain is less responsive to external stimuli
what are the brain waves called in stages 3 and 4 of sleep? how do they appear? what happens to the brain in this state?
-delta waves
-very high amplitude
-brain activity slows and becomes difficult to wake
what is REM sleep?
-stands for rapid eye movements
-the stage of sleep characterized by quickening brain waves and deep relaxation
-body movement is inhibited by the brain stem
what is REM sleep associated with and why?
-dreaming and sleep paralysis
-it is called a paradoxical sleep because you are asleep but the brain appears awake (similar wave pattern)
what are K complexes possibly for?
-memory formation
what is REM rebound?
-if you are typically getting 8 hours of sleep, but one night get only 4 hours, you will have more REM sleep the following night since the typical cycle has been interrupted
why is REM important?
-important in learning
-especially important in learning complex tasks
-the later REM phases are key for locking in learning
why does REM lock in learning?
-it has been shown that if certain areas have activity during a task then REM sleep that night will have a similar pattern of brain activity
what does the amount of sleep depend on?
-no magic number
-depends on age and genetics of each individual as sleep is developmentally important
-need more REM sleep when you’re younger as you are learning more complex things such as talking and walking
what is slow wave sleep (stage 3 + 4) important for?
-learning autobiographical memories (stories of our life)
-neural replay occurs
what is neural replay?
-fast-forward playback
-pattern of neural activity that occurred while awake is repeated during sleep (stages 3+4)
what are the characteristics of sleep deprivation?
-more readily falls asleep
-irritability/emotional deficits
-attention/vigilance deficits
-normal energy when occupied, weakness sets in when sitting down or resting
-reading/studying is impossible
-microsleeps occur after 2-3 days
what are the costs of sleep deprivation?
-cognitive deficits such as thinking and learning
-emotional deficits such as friend and family interactions
-increased risk of vehicle accidents (similar to drunk driving)
-increased number of preventable medical errors (shift workers)
what is sleep displacement?
-when an individual is prevented from sleeping at the normal time
-jet lag or daylight savings
-biological clock becomes out of sync with the environment
what way of travelling causes less trouble for most people?
-west travel because delaying sleep is easier than trying to sleep earlier
what are ways to practice good sleep hygeine?
-go to bed and wake up at similar times each day
-dont eat or drink too much before bed
-keep naps short and before 5pm
-exercise regularly
-develop wind down rituals
-keep your bedroom a relaxing place
-go to bed in a good environment (dark, quiet, good temp.)
-dont lie in bed awake
what was sigmund freud’s approach to dreams?
-argued that dreams are unconscious expressions of wish fulfillment and the ID (impulsive part of your mind)
-believed there was 2 types of content within dreams
-published the interpretation of dreams in 1900
-did not have a lot of support
what are the 2 types of content that freud believed were contained within dreams?
-manifest content (images and storylines, literal)
-latent content (symbolic meaning typically built on suppressed sexual or aggressive urges, the window into the unconscious mind)
what are the 2 modern theories of dreaming?
- activation-synthesis hypothesis
- problem solving theory
what is the activation-synthesis hypothesis?
-suggests that dreams arise from brain activity that originates from random bursts of excitatory signals coming from the brain stem
-brain stem activates when sleeping
-explains why dreams can be random or bizarre
why might the activation-synthesis hypothesis not be the best theory?
-the brain is still processing info when asleep so the activity is likely not random
what is the problem-solving theory?
-thoughts and concerns are continuous from waking to sleeping
-dreams may function as a way to find a solution to problems encountered when awake
-explains why we have dreams relating to current life
why is the memorability of dreams often difficult?
-stress hormones such as norepinephrine and cortisol are very important in memory formation
-these hormones are most active when we are awake, and activity decreases when we are asleep, so memories of dreams are not formed
-if you wake up lots through your dreams, you are more likely to remember them as stress hormones will increase with wakefullness
what is insomnia?
-difficulty pertaining to sleep
-types of insomnia are based on where in the sleep cycle the difficulty occurs and what the difficulty is caused by
-difficulty must be continuous for 3 months and last for at least 30 minutes
-3 types based on difficulty
-2 types based on cause
what are the 3 types of insomnia based on difficulty?
-onset insomnia
-maintenance insomnia
-terminal insomnia
what is onset insomnia?
-difficulty falling asleep
what is maintenance insomnia?
-difficulty returning to sleep
what is terminal insomnia?
-waking too early
what are the 2 types of insomnia based on the cause?
-primary insomnia
-secondary insomnia
what is primary insomnia?
-difficulty is due to an internal source (anxiety or depression)
what is secondary insomnia?
-difficulty is due to other disorders (body pains or substance abuse)
which theory of dreams relates to nightmares and night terrors? how so?
-problem solving theory
-nightmares and night terrors typically occur when we are worried or particularly anxious about something
what are nightmares?
-particularly vivid and disturbing dreams that occur during REM sleep
-since during REM they are considered dreams
what are night terrors?
-intense bouts of panic and arousal that awaken the individual
-typically wake up in a heightened emotional state (increased HR + breathing)
-occur during non-REM sleep
-no actual dream content so there is no memory
what are 3 types of movement disturbances in sleep?
-restless legs syndrome
-REM behaviour disorder
-somnabulism
what is restless legs syndrome?
-persistent discomfort in the legs that causes one to continuously shift them in different positions
-affects overall sleep quality
-people are usually unaware that they are doing it
what is REM behaviour disorder?
-people act out their dreams as they are happening due to failure to inhibit motor signals
-sleep paralysis
what is somnambulism?
-sleepwalking
-wandering and performing activities while asleep
-activities are generally simple and harmless
-not acting out dreams (no dream content)
how should you approach someone who is sleepwalking?
-carefully wake them and put them back to bed
-it is not dangerous to wake someone
what is sleep apnea?
-temporary inability to breathe during sleep as the airway becomes obstructed
-typically due to obesity or damage to the medulla
-rarely fatal as decreasing O2 levels are detected and will cause gasping for air that the purpose is unaware of
-affects overall sleep quality
what are the common fixes to sleep apnea?
-breathing machine
-losing weight if due to obesity
what is narcolepsy?
-extreme daytime sleepiness
-can cause random sleep attacks lasting a few seconds or minutes
-immediately go into REM sleep
what are common fixes for people that suffer from narcolepsy?
-napping as this controls sleep and limits the uncontrolled bouts of sleep
what is hypnosis?
-a procedure of inducing a heightened state of suggestibility
-suggestibility = open minded + act on the suggestions from others
-highly relaxed state with increased attention
-not a unique wave pattern (higher amplitude and wavelength)
-not mind control
-person undergoing a hypnotic state would not do anything they wouldn’t normally do
what are the 3 main hypnotic suggestions likely to be followed?
-ideomotor (actions to perform)
-challenge (actions to NOT perform)
-cognitive - perceptual (prompt remembering/forgetting (false memory) or giving altered perceptions (telling them pain is not present when it is))
what are 2 theories surrounding hypnosis?
-dissociation theory
-social - cognitive theory
what is dissociation theory?
-explains hypnosis as a unique state where consciousness is divided
-one side is working and thinking directly, the other side is in the background and is aware of the things happening but does not interfere
-common example is driving on autopilot
-hypnosis does not take full control (can snap out of it)
what is social-cognitive theory?
-emphasizes the degree to which beliefs and expectations contribute to increased suggestibility
-you are more likely to conform to expectations
-a believer in hypnosis will be “easier” to hypnotize compared to a non-believer
-top down processing (expectations affecting)
-drinking non alc beer but told it is alcoholic (you will act or feel drunk when not)
where is hypnosis an effective addition to treatment?
-medical treatments
-acute pain relief
would hypnosis help with chronic pain?
-not really b/c of top down processing
-people with chronic pain have an expectation of pain
why is hypnosis not used to recover memories anymore for court purposes?
-typically leads to recovery of false memories so it cannot be used as court evidence
-due to being in a state of suggestibility people are likely to say what people want to hear from them as a witness
what is mind wandering?
-unintentional redirection of attention from the current task to an unrelated train of thought
is the idle mind determined to be a state of rest?
-NO
-there is a default mode network
what is default mode network?
-a pattern of brain activity associated with self-reflection, introspection, autobiographical memories, and future thinking
-characteristic to each person but can have some general similarities
what is the problem with using the default mode network as a measure of control in experiments on brain activity?
-each individual will differ
-some individuals can have abnormal DMN activity causes skews in data
what is abnormal DMN activity linked to?
-certain psychological disorders
-patients with depression have increased DMN activity
what are different disorders of conciousness?
-locked - in syndrome
-minimally conscious state
-vegetative state
-coma
-brain death
how is consciousness assessed?
-assessed on a spectrum of wakefullness/awareness called the glasglow coma scale
-tests basic compounds of consciousness and reflexes (ex: eye responses = hind brain damage)
-ex: motor responses + verbal responses
what is brain death?
-condition where the brain stem no longer functions
-no potential for recovery
-no brain activity
what is a coma?
-complete loss of consciousness
-body is still besides minor twitches
-no pupillary response due to hind brain damage
what is controversial about vegetative states?
-they lie in the middle of consciousness disorders (halfway between brain death and locked-in syndrome)
-some consciousness is thought to still be present
-right to die movement vs right to life movement
what is an example of a controversial case within the idea of vegetative states?
-case of terry shiavo
-husband wanted to pull the plug, parents did not
what is a persistent vegetative state?
-state of minimal to no consciousness with no bodily control
-eyes are open but do not track movement (move aimlessly)
-still have normal sleep cycles
-best hope for recovery occurs before 6 months
what has been discovered in some persistent vegetative state patients?
-signs of consciousness
-fMRI suggests comprehension of commands and mental imagery
-could possibly just be a misdiagnosis of a vegetative state
-does language/ability to direct own thoughts = consciousness
-difficult to conclude due to the blurry definition of consciousness
what is a minimally conscious state?
-marked by the ability to show some behaviours that suggest partial consciousness, even if it is on an inconsistent basis
-behaviours must be beyond reflexes (following commands or minimal verbal responses such as yes or no)
what is locked-in syndrome?
-patient is aware and awake but because of an inability to move, they appear unconscious
-eyes movement still occurs and can be directed
-cognitive and emotional processing is intact
what happens as conscious awareness decreases?
-brain activity diminishes
-can be hard to make conclusions based on brain activity because of ‘the problem of other minds’
-not knowing if we all experience things the same
what effects can drugs take on neurotransmitters?
-agonistic effects (enhancing)
-antagonistic effects (blocking)
what are the different processes of neurotransmitters that short term drugs can affect?
-synthesis
-storage (packaging in vesicles)
-release (fusion/exocytosis)
-receptor interaction
-inactivation
-reuptake
-degradation
what is the role of the nucleus accumbens?
-a prime area of activation when a person engages in a rewarding behaviour
-within the basal ganglia
-rich in dopamine releasing cells which is what gives the sense of euphoria/high
what is tolerance in terms of drugs used long term?
-when the repeated use of a drug results in a need for a higher dose to get the intended effect
-metabolic and cellular tolerance (over time cells become better at removing the drug, ex: alcohol, smooth ER removes toxins)
-down regulation of receptors
what is the process of down regulation?
-neurons dont like to be over or under active
-if the cell becomes over active, then receptors will remove themselves/inactivate
-if the cell is used to being over active and you stop taking the drug for a period of time, the neuron will have a harder time activating in the future
what is physical dependence of a drug?
-the need to take a drug to ward off unpleasant physical withdrawal
-alcoholics get nausea, headaches, and even hallucinate when alcohol is not consumed
what is psychological dependence of a drug?
-the need to take a drug to ward off negative emotions
-no physical symptoms
-drug use can become a social ritual (smoking) to satisfy your social emotional brain
what are the top down influences present with consistent drug use?
-experience with a drug changes the response (marijuana)
-have an expectation built that may exaggerate a drugs true response
-context dependent overdoses (no expectation present in new locations to prepare the body for the drug)
what are context dependent overdoses?
-more likely to have a fatal overdose if taking a drug in a new environment
-the typical environment gives the body signals to prepare for the drug
-if not in this typical environment, no signals will be present
-the anticipatory drug response cannot occur (no signals = failed response)
-anticipatory drug response works to clear the drug
-why celeb overdoses are in novel places
what are stimulant drugs?
-drugs that speed up the nervous system by typically enhancing wakefulness and alertness
-have an elevated mood, increased energy, and lowered inhibitions (more risky and social)
-increased serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine
-tolerance to these drugs develops quickly
-high risk of dependence (withdrawal)
what are examples of stimulant drugs?
-cocoaine
-amphetamines (meth)
-ecstasy
what is the physical deterioration of someone who is taking a stimulant drug often?
-hygiene is neglected (out of it)
-drug cocktail often includes ingredients such as HCL and farm fertilizer (poisonous, cell destruction occurs)
what is the cognitive deterioration of someone who is taking a stimulant drug often?
-structural abnormalities in the cells of the frontal lobe (executive function, reason, planning, inhibiting unwanted impulses)
-develop difficulties ignoring irrelevant thoughts
-stroop test is done (colours written vs actual colours)
-those on long term stimulants will fail and just read the colours
what are hallucinogens?
-produce perceptual distortions
-experiences can range from euphoria to fear, panic, or paranoia
-wide range of experiences because of top down influencing (expectations influence the effects)
-increased serotonin (mood)
-glutamate receptors (excitatory nt) are blocked (cannot communicate properly without these (why hallucinations happen)
-tolerance develops slowly
-low risk of dependence
what are examples of hallucinogens?
-LSD
-ketamine
-DMT
-psilocybin
-salvia divinorum
what happens to the activated areas of the brain when taking hallucinogens?
-broader activation even in a simple task
-caused by the distortions
what are opiates?
-also known as narcotics
-reduce pain (medically) and induce extremely intense feelings of euphoria
-stimulate endorphin receptors and promote endorphin release
-tolerance develops very quickly
-very high risk of dependence
what is the purpose of endorphins?
-natural pain killing chemicals (neurotransmitters) in the brain
-if feelings of pain occur, these are released
-why people get “runner’s high”
why does the tolerance for opiates develop so quickly?
-the body fights drugs that affect the system of pain
-need an ever increasing dose
what are examples of opiates?
-morphine
-heroin
-fentanyl
-oxycodone
-oxycontin
-codeine
-opium
what is naloxone?
-drug that blocks endorphin receptors sites to negate the effects of opiates
-can cause increased feelings of pain since endorphins cannot bind
-has not effect on the body otherwise
what is the opioid crisis?
-people getting addicted to opiates from medical prescriptions (not the homeless population)
-when the prescription runs out they turn to worse ways of getting these drugs
-other opiates are often laced with high amounts of fentanyl
-ongoing class-action lawsuits against opioid manufacturers (should be paying the health care costs)
-methadone treatment has been developed
what is methadone treatment?
-synthetic opiate that is used to prevent the withdrawal symptoms
what are sedatives?
-also called “downers”
-depress the activity of the central nervous system
-drowsiness, relaxation, and sleep
-increase GABA activity (Inhibitory nt)
-tolerance develops quickly
-high risk of dependence
what are examples of sedatives?
-xanax
-valium
-barbiturates (older class of sedatives that have been shown to inhibit the medulla and cause death)
-barbiturates are still used by ppl as a sleep aid, but it gives poor quality of sleep
-benzodiazepines are a newer class of sedatives
what is alcohol?
-most commonly used drug
-causes feelings of euphoria, relaxation, and lowered inhibitions
-increase GABA activity (accumulates in the frontal lobe, causes you to be more risky and social and act on impulse)
-also stimulates endorphin and dopamine receptors
-tolerance develops gradually
-moderate-risk of dependence
-biphasic effect
what does it mean for alcohol to have a biphasic effect?
-you will gain a lot of euphoria intially, but if the intake increases (binge drinking) you have feelings of disphoria
-not a positive linear line
what is alcohol myopia?
-narrow focus of cues related to one’s own current desires and impulses while ignoring everything else
-youth are particularly susceptible
-protracted (longer) development of the frontal lobe
what is marijuana?
-made from leaves and buds of the cannabis plant
-feelings of euphoria, distorted sensory experiences, paranoia
-THC mimics brain chemicals (anandamide) which is involved in sleep and memory by binding to cannabinoid receptors
-tolerance develops slowly
-lower risk of dependence
-stimulates hunger (munchies) and reduces pain
how does marijuana affect the brain?
-impairs memory, executive function (decisions, impulse, etc), and motor coordination
-worse memory, decision making, and attention
-there is an altered brain activity compared to controls when completing tasks (work harder, more effort)
-distribution of cannaboid receptors in the brain correspond to cognitive deficits
when did legalization of marijuana occur in canada?
-2018
-legal age for use, purchase, and possession is 19
