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Chapter 5 Flashcards

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1
Q

What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists?

A

Nature and nurture. What parts of development are gradual and continuous vs abruptly occurring in distinct stages. What traits persist vs what traits change with age.

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2
Q

What is developmental psychology?

A

The study of how people develop physically, cognitively, and socially across their life span.

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3
Q

What is a longitudinal study?

A

Research that follows subjects over time and retests them.

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4
Q

What is a cross-sectional study?

A

Research that compares subjects of varying ages at the same point in time.

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5
Q

How do researchers who emphasize experience and learning tend to characterize development?

A

As a gradually unfolding process.

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6
Q

How do researchers who emphasize biological maturation tend to characterize development?

A

As a series of genetically predisposed stages.

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7
Q

What is a stage theory?

A

A theory of how people develop socially, morally, psychologically, or cognitively in stages.

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8
Q

What is the end of history illusion?

A

The assumption that one won’t change very much in the future, even if they recognize how much they have changed in the past.

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9
Q

What is a zygote?

A

A fertilized egg from conception to two weeks after fertilization.

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10
Q

How long does it take a zygote to develop into an embryo?

A

2 weeks.

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11
Q

How does a zygote develop into an embryo?

A

Rapid cell division.

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12
Q

How many zygotes survive their first two weeks?

A

Less than half.

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13
Q

What is an embryo?

A

A developing human organism during the period between two weeks and eight weeks after conception.

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14
Q

What is a fetus?

A

The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception until its birth.

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15
Q

What is a teratogen?

A

A chemical or viral agent that can harm an embryo or fetus during development.

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16
Q

What is fetal alcohol syndrome?

A

Physical and cognitive abnormalities caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy.

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17
Q

How do teratogens effect development?

A

They can leave epigenetic marks on the baby that turn genes on or off abnormally and cause developmental issues.

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18
Q

What is habituation?

A

A decreased response after prolonged exposure to something.

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19
Q

Chemicals that the placenta isn’t able to screen out that can harm an embryo or fetus are called

A

Teratogens.

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20
Q

Which stage theorist is known for a theory of moral development?

A

Lawrence Kohlberg.

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21
Q

Which stage theorist is known for a theory of cognitive development?

A

Jean Piaget.

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22
Q

Which stage theorist is known for a theory of psychosocial development?

A

Erik Erikson.

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23
Q

Body organs first begin to form and function during the period of the:

A

Embryo.

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24
Q

The organs are sufficiently functional to provide a good chance of surviving and thriving during the period of the:

A

Fetus.

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25
Q

What is maturation?

A

Biological processes of growth taking place in an orderly sequence and relatively uninfluenced by experience.

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26
Q

How do researchers explore infants’ mental abilities?

A

Using the principle of habituation to find out what infants learn and remember.

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27
Q

What are some innate skills and abilities of newborns?

A

Being oriented towards faces, recognizing their mother’s voice and smell, reflexes that help them feed, avoid pain, hang onto their caregivers and get their attention.

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28
Q

From ages 3-6, where is the most rapid brain growth?

A

In the frontal lobes.

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29
Q

What are the last cortical areas to develop during development?

A

The brain’s association areas.

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30
Q

What is infantile amnesia?

A

The tendency to forget experiences prior to age 4 as rapid neuron growth disrupts the storage of old memories and major brain areas have yet to mature.

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31
Q

How does the brain develop during infancy and childhood?

A

Neural connections become increasingly complex with age. A pruning process weakens unused connections and strengthens frequently used ones. Infantile amnesia means that people don’t usually have conscious memories of being younger than 4.

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32
Q

How do motor skills develop during infancy and childhood?

A

In a predictable sequence, although the exact timing of each event depend on culture and individual maturation.

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33
Q

What is assimilation?

A

Interpreting new experiences to fit into our pre-existing schemas.

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34
Q

What is accomodation?

A

Adapting schemes to incorporate new information (such as by refining a schema to make it less specific).

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35
Q

What are Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?

A

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

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36
Q

What age range does the sensorimotor stage correspond to?

A

From birth to nearly age 2.

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37
Q

What is the sensorimotor stage?

A

The stage in Piaget’s development theory between birth and nearly age 2 when an infant mostly understands the world through their senses and motor actions.

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38
Q

When do infants begin demonstrating object permanence?

A

Around eight months.

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39
Q

What is the preoperational stage?

A

The stage in Piaget’s development theory between about 2 - 6 or 7 years of age when a child learns to use language but cannot perform mental operations.

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40
Q

What is conservation?

A

The principle in Piaget’s development theory that properties such as mass/volume/number remain the same despite changes in form (such as the same amount of milk being poured into a shorter or taller glass).

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41
Q

What is egocentrism?

A

In Piaget’s theory, the difficulty preoperational children have with seeing from another’s point of view.

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42
Q

What is the curse of knowledge?

A

An egocentric bias in which someone assumes other people have the same thoughts and knowledge as themselves.

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43
Q

What is the concrete operational stage?

A

The stage in Piaget’s development theory between about 7 and 11 when children are able to reason logically about concrete events, being able to, for example, understand the principle of conservation.

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44
Q

What is the formal operational stage?

A

Starting at about age 12, the stage in Piaget’s development theory when people are able to think logically about abstract concepts

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45
Q

What are key milestones of the sensorimotor stage?

A

Object permanence, stranger anxiety.

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46
Q

What are key milestones of the preoperational stage?

A

Pretend play, egocentrism.

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47
Q

What are key milestones of the concrete operational stage?

A

Conservation and mathematical transformations.

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48
Q

What are key milestones of the formal operational stage?

A

Abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning.

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49
Q

At what cognitive developmental stage does one develop object permanence?

A

The sensorimotor stage.

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50
Q

At what cognitive developmental stage does one have difficulty taking another’s point of view?

A

The preoperational stage.

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51
Q

At what cognitive developmental stage does one become able to reverse mathematical calculations?

A

The concrete operational stage.

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52
Q

At what cognitive developmental stage does one understand that physical properties stay the same even when objects change form?

A

The concrete operational stage.

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53
Q

At what cognitive developmental stage does one enjoy imaginary play?

A

The preoperational stage.

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54
Q

At what cognitive developmental stage does one understand abstract concepts like “freedom”?

A

The formal operational stage.

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55
Q

How do today’s developmental researchers differ from Piaget?

A

They see development as more continuous and less abrupt, and don’t place as much emphasis on formal logic. They have uncovered conceptual abilities at earlier ages than Piaget did.

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56
Q

What is a scaffold?

A

In Vygotsky’s theory, a framework provided by a mentor that supports the development of higher levels of thinking in children.

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57
Q

How did Vygotsky view children’s cognitive development?

A

“Vygotsky’s studies of child development focused on the ways a child’s mind grows by interacting with the social environment. In his view, parents, teachers, and other children provide temporary scaffolds enabling children to step to higher levels of thinking.”

58
Q

What is theory of mind?

A

The ability to attribute mental states to other people in order to understand them separately from oneself and potentially predict their behaviour. The ability to take the perspective of someone else.

59
Q

How does autism spectrum disorder impact theory of mind?

A

Children with autism spectrum disorder have difficulty understanding that other people’s mental states differ from their own.

60
Q

What is stranger anxiety?

A

The tendency for infants, beginning at 8 months of age, to experience anxiety around strangers.

61
Q

What is attachment?

A

An emotional bond with others characterized by desiring closeness with them and experiencing distress when separated.

62
Q

What advantages does physical touch from a caregiver confer upon an infant?

A

A boost to brain development and later cognitive ability.

63
Q

What is the critical period?

A

A period early in the development of an organism when exposure to certain experiences is necessary for normal development.

64
Q

What is imprinting?

A

A trait exhibited by certain kinds of animals in which they form an intense attachment early in life.

65
Q

Who studied imprinting in ducks?

A

Konrad Lorenz.

66
Q

What distinguishes imprinting from attachment?

A

Imprinting only occurs in certain animals who have a critical stage early in their development and it tends to be inflexible. Humans do not imprint, but they do become attached to various people with whom they form emotional bonds.

67
Q

Who studied attachment in infant monkeys?

A

Margaret and Harry Harlow.

68
Q

Who designed the strange situation experiment?

A

Mary Ainsworth.

69
Q

What is secure attachment?

A

When infants explore an unfamiliar situation comfortably in the presence of their mother and seek contact with her after her absence.

70
Q

What is insecure attachment?

A

Anxiety or avoidance about trusting relationships, demonstrated by infants who don’t feel comfortable exploring strange surroundings in the presence of their mother, who may cling to their mother, or avoid her after she has been absent.

71
Q

At what age does childhood separation anxiety peak?

A

Around 13 months.

72
Q

What is basic trust?

A

In the theory of Joan and Erik Erikson, the sense securely attached children have that the world is reliable and predictable.

73
Q

What is anxious attachment?

A

An attachment style characterized by fear of rejection that may cause people to cling to their loved ones and be vigilant for signs of abandonment.

74
Q

What is avoidant attachment?

A

An attachment style characterized by discomfort with closeness that decreases relationship commitment.

75
Q

How does childhood neglect or abuse affect children’s attachments?

A

“Most children are resilient, but those who are abused or severely neglected by their caregivers, or otherwise prevented from forming attachments at an early age, may be at risk for attachment problems. Extreme trauma in childhood may alter the brain, affecting our stress responses or leaving epigenetic marks.”

76
Q

What is self-concept?

A

The awareness of oneself as a distinct, separate person. Our answer to the question “Who am I?”

77
Q

When does self-awareness begin using mirror studies?

A

Around eighteen months.

78
Q

How do children’s self-concepts develop?

A

“Self-concept, an understanding and evaluation of who we are, emerges gradually. By 15 to 18 months, children recognize themselves in a mirror. By school age, they can describe many of their own traits and by age 8 or 10 their self-image is stable.”

79
Q

At what age does self-concept become stable?

A

Around 8-10.

80
Q

What two traits in combination describe the different parenting styles?

A

How responsive and how demanding parents are.

81
Q

What are the four main parenting styles?

A

Authoritarian, permissive, neglectful, and authoritative.

82
Q

What traits correlate with an authoritarian parenting style?

A

Children with less social skill, lower self-esteem, and a tendency to overreact to mistakes.

83
Q

What traits correlate with a permissive parenting style?

A

Children who are more aggressive and immature.

84
Q

What traits correlate with a neglectful parenting style?

A

Children with poor academic and social outcomes.

85
Q

What traits correlate with an authoritative parenting style?

A

Self-esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence.

86
Q

Although Piaget’s stage theory continues to inform our understanding of children’s thinking, many researchers believe that:

A

“Piaget’s stages begin earlier and development is more continuous than he realized.”

87
Q

What is the life-span perspective in developmental psychology?

A

The understanding that development doesn’t end in childhood, but is life-long.

88
Q

What is adolescence?

A

The transitional period between childhood and adulthood, beginning at puberty and ending with adult independence.

89
Q

What is puberty?

A

The transition to reproductive maturity.

90
Q

How do physical changes affect developing teens?

A

“Early maturation can be a challenge for developing adolescents. The brain’s frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence and the early twenties, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning.”

91
Q

What is an imaginary audience?

A

The ability to imagine what other people are thinking of you that begins in adolescence.

92
Q

What is a personal fable?

A

A belief, common amongst adolescents, that they are unique and the bad outcomes that happen to other people won’t happen to them even if they engage in the same behaviours.

93
Q

What is moral reasoning?

A

The way we think when we are considering right and wrong.

94
Q

What are Lawrence Kohlberg’s three levels of moral reasoning?

A

Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

95
Q

What is preconventional morality?

A

The stage of moral reasoning occurring before age 9 that emphasizes self-interest: following the rules to avoid punishment and gain concrete rewards.

96
Q

“If you steal the medicine you will go to jail,” is an example of which stage of moral reasoning?

A

Preconventional.

97
Q

What is conventional morality?

A

The stage of moral reasoning reached by early adolescence that emphasizes upholding social laws in order to gain social approval or maintain social order.

98
Q

“We are supposed to take care of our loved ones, so you should steal the drug,” is an example of which stage of moral reasoning?

A

Conventional morality.

99
Q

What is postconventional morality?

A

The stage of moral reasoning characterized by a belief in basic rights and self-defined moral principles.

100
Q

“People have a right to live,” is an example of which stage of moral reasoning?

A

Postconventional morality.

101
Q

What are some problems with Kohlberg’s moral stages?

A

Postconventional morality is culturally limited to more individualistic cultures. It is also male-focused, emphasizing what is fair rather than caring for others in immediate need.

102
Q

Which researcher believes that our morality is rooted in moral intuition?

A

Jonathan Haidt.

103
Q

What are moral intuitions?

A

Automatic gut feelings based in elation or disgust that lead to moral reasoning.

104
Q

What is the intuitionist perspective on morality?

A

The perspective, proposed by Jonathan Haidt, that moral reasoning is a byproduct of intuitive feeling. Our morality is not driven by reason, but by emotion.

105
Q

Who administered the marshmallow test?

A

Walter Mischel.

106
Q

How did Piaget describe adolescent cognitive and moral development?

A

“Piaget theorized that adolescents develop a capacity for formal operations and that this development is the foundation for moral judgment.”

107
Q

What are Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development?

A

Infancy (up to 1 year), toddlerhood (1-3 years), preschool (3-6 years), elementary school (6 years - puberty), adolescence (teen years to 20’s), young adulthood (20’s to early 40’s), middle adulthood (40’s - 60’s), late adulthood (late 60’s+).

108
Q

What are the characteristics of Erikson’s infant stage of psychosocial development?

A

Trust vs mistrust: learning a sense of basic trust.

109
Q

What are the characteristics of Erikson’s toddler stage of psychosocial development?

A

Autonomy vs shame/doubt: toddlers learn to be self-reliant, or develop self-doubt.

110
Q

What are the characteristics of Erikson’s preschool stage of psychosocial development?

A

Initiative vs guilt: preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or feel guilty about failing in their efforts to be independent.

111
Q

What are the characteristics of Erikson’s elementary school stage of psychosocial development?

A

Competence vs inferiority: Children apply themselves to tasks or feel inferior.

112
Q

What are the characteristics of Erikson’s adolescent stage of psychosocial development?

A

Identity vs role confusion: Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are.

113
Q

What are the characteristics of Erikson’s young adult stage of psychosocial development?

A

Intimacy vs isolation: the challenge is to form intimate relationships or feel isolated.

114
Q

What are the characteristics of Erikson’s middle adult stage of psychosocial development?

A

Generativity vs stagnation: Develop a sense of contributing to the world, often through work or family, or feel a sense of purposelessness.

115
Q

What are the characteristics of Erikson’s late adult stage of psychosocial development?

A

Integrity vs despair: Feeling a sense of satisfaction or failure after reflecting on one’s life.

116
Q

What is identity?

A

“Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.”

117
Q

What is social identity?

A

Who we are based on our membership in social groups.

118
Q

What is intimacy?

A

“The ability to form emotionally close relationships.”

119
Q

What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence?

A

“Solidifying one’s sense of self in adolescence means trying out a number of different roles. Social identity is the part of the self-concept that comes from a person’s group memberships.”

120
Q

How do parents and peers influence adolescents?

A

“During adolescence, parental influence diminishes and peer influence increases. Adolescents adopt their peers’ ways of dressing, acting, and communicating. Positive parent-teen relationships correlate with positive peer relationships, however. Personalities and temperaments are shaped by both nature and nurture, including parental and peer influences.”

121
Q

What is emerging adulthood?

A

In Western societies, the period from age 18 to the mid-20’s when one is no longer an adolescent but has not reached full adult independence.

122
Q

What is menopause?

A

The cessation of menstruation and the physical changes that occur as the ability to reproduce declines.

123
Q

What are telomeres, and what happens to them with aging?

A

Telomeres are the protective caps at the ends of chromosomes, which wear down with age. Telomeres are longer in breast-fed children and shorter in people who are stressed, obese, smoke, or have suffered bullying or abuse.

124
Q

What is the death-deferral phenomenon?

A

The tendency for death to be delayed until after important milestones like birthdays or after Christmas.

125
Q

What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood?

A

“Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline in the mid-twenties” accelerating through middle and late adulthood, varying according to health habits. The immune system weakens.

126
Q

How does memory change with age?

A

“Recall begins to decline, especially for meaningless information, but recognition memory remains strong.”

127
Q

What is prospective memory?

A

The memory of intentions, remembering “to” do something. Prospective memory declines with age.

128
Q

What is terminal decline?

A

A sharp cognitive decline within a few years of dying a natural death.

129
Q

How do neurocognitive disorders affect cognitive ability?

A

NCDs are acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits, which are often related to Alzheimer’s disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. This damage to brain cells results in the erosion of mental abilities that is not typical of normal aging.

130
Q

How does Alzheimer’s disease affect cognitive ability?

A

Alzheimer’s disease causes the deterioration of memory, then reasoning. After 5 to 20 years, the person becomes emotionally flat, disoriented, disinhibited, incontinent, and finally mentally vacant.

131
Q

What is another name for neurocognitive disorders?

A

Dementia.

132
Q

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

A

“A neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities.”

133
Q

What is at the root of Alzheimer’s disease?

A

A deterioration of neurons that produce acetylcholine. Protein filaments in the cell body shrivel, and free-floating protein fragments clump up at the neuron tips where synaptic connections take place.

134
Q

What are some signs of Alzheimer’s?

A

A diminished sense of smell and a slow, wobbly gait.

135
Q

What is the social clock?

A

The culturally preferred timing for major life events like marriage or retirement.

136
Q

What are the two primary driving forces in adulthood according to Erik Erikson?

A

Intimacy and generativity (being productive and supporting future generations).

137
Q

How does our well-being change across the life span?

A

“Surveys show that life satisfaction is unrelated to age until the terminal decline phase. Positive emotions increase after midlife and negative ones decrease; with age come fewer extremes of emotion and mood.”

138
Q

What are some of the rewards of getting old?

A

“Positive feelings tend to grow; negative emotions subside; and anger, stress, worry, and social-relationship problems decrease.”

139
Q

What are some of the challenges of getting old?

A

“Decline of muscular strength, reaction times, stamina, sensory keenness, cardiac output, and immune system functioning. Risk of cognitive decline increases.”

140
Q

What range of reactions does a loved one’s death trigger?

A

“People do not grieve in predictable stages, as was once supposed, and bereavement therapy is not significantly more effective than grieving without such aid. Life can be affirmed even at death, especially for those who experience what Erikson called a sense of integrity—a feeling that one’s life has been meaningful.”

141
Q

Kohlberg emphasized that human behavior becomes less selfish as we mature because of our

A

Cognitive development.

Intro to Psych (9 decks)

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