chapter 40 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the relationship between animal form and function?
A
Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization.
2
Q
What essential functions must all animals perform?
A
- Obtain nutrients and oxygen
- Fight off infection
- Survive to produce offspring
3
Q
How does structure relate to function in animals?
A
Structure and function are correlated; examining anatomy often provides clues to physiology.
4
Q
What physical laws limit the range of animal forms?
A
Physical laws governing strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange.
5
Q
What is convergent evolution?
A
Convergent evolution results in similar adaptations of diverse organisms facing the same challenge.
6
Q
What happens to the skeletal structure of animals as they increase in size?
A
Thicker skeletons are required for support.
7
Q
Fill in the blank: The rate of exchange of materials in cells is proportional to a cell’s _______.
A
surface area
8
Q
What must be exchanged across the plasma membranes of animal cells?
A
- Nutrients
- Waste products
- Gases
9
Q
What is required for multicellular organizations to function?
A
Every cell must have access to a suitable aqueous environment.
10
Q
What type of body plan facilitates diffusion in multicellular organisms?
A
A saclike body plan with body walls that are only two cells thick.
11
Q
In flat animals like tapeworms, how are cells arranged in relation to their environment?
A
Most cells are in direct contact with their environment.
12
Q
What fills the space between cells in animals?
A
Interstitial fluid.
13
Q
What is the main component of the digestive organ system?
A
- Mouth
- Pharynx
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Intestines
- Liver
- Pancreas
- Anus
14
Q
What are the four main types of animal tissues?
A
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nervous
15
Q
What does epithelial tissue do?
A
Covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within.
16
Q
How are cells arranged in connective tissue?
A
Sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix.
17
Q
What are the three types of connective tissue fibers?
A
- Collagenous fibers
- Reticular fibers
- Elastic fibers
18
Q
What function do fibroblasts serve in connective tissue?
A
They secrete fiber proteins.
19
Q
What type of connective tissue binds epithelia to underlying tissues?
A
Loose connective tissue.
20
Q
What are the major types of connective tissue in vertebrates?
A
- Loose connective tissue
- Fibrous connective tissue
- Adipose tissue
- Cartilage
- Bone
- Blood
21
Q
What are the six major types of connective tissue in vertebrates?
A
- Loose connective tissue
- Fibrous connective tissue
- Bone
- Adipose tissue
- Blood
- Cartilage
22
Q
What is the function of loose connective tissue?
A
Binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
23
Q
What is the role of fibrous connective tissue?
A
- Attaches muscles to bones (tendons)
- Connects bones at joints (ligaments)
24
Q
What is unique about bone as a connective tissue?
A
It is mineralized and forms the skeleton
25
What is the primary function of adipose tissue?
Stores fat for insulation and fuel
26
What components make up blood?
* Blood cells
* Cell fragments
* Blood plasma
27
What are the characteristics of cartilage?
Strong and flexible support material
28
What is the primary responsibility of muscle tissue?
Nearly all types of body movement
29
What proteins do muscle cells consist of that enable contraction?
* Actin
* Myosin
30
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
* Skeletal muscle (striated, voluntary movement)
* Smooth muscle (involuntary activities)
* Cardiac muscle (heart contraction)
31
What is the function of nervous tissue?
Receipt, processing, and transmission of information
32
What are the two primary types of cells in nervous tissue?
* Neurons (nerve cells)
* Glial cells (support cells)
33
What are the two major systems for coordinating responses to stimuli in animals?
* Endocrine system
* Nervous system
34
How does the endocrine system communicate within the body?
Releases signaling molecules (hormones) carried via blood to all locations
35
How does the nervous system communicate information?
Transmits information along dedicated routes to specific locations
36
What are hormones?
Signaling molecules broadcast through the body by the endocrine system
37
How long may a hormone remain in the bloodstream?
Minutes or even hours
38
What is a nerve impulse?
Signals that travel to specific target cells along communication lines
39
What is the speed and duration of nerve signal transmission?
Very fast and lasts only a fraction of a second
40
What are the two types of feedback mechanisms in homeostasis?
* Negative feedback
* Positive feedback
41
What does negative feedback do in homeostasis?
Damps a stimulus to help return the variable to the set point
42
What does positive feedback do in biological processes?
Amplifies a stimulus and drives a process to completion
43
What is homeostasis?
Maintaining a relatively constant internal environment regardless of external changes
44
What is a set point in homeostasis?
A particular value that a variable is maintained at or near
45
What is the role of sensors in homeostatic control systems?
Detect fluctuations above or below the set point
46
What happens when there is a fluctuation in a variable?
It serves as a stimulus detected by a sensor
47
What can cause changes in set points and normal ranges?
* Age
* Cyclic variation during life stages
48
What biological phenomenon governs physiological changes roughly every 24 hours?
Circadian rhythm
49
What is an example of a cyclic change in hormone levels in humans?
Variation in hormone levels responsible for a woman’s menstrual cycle
50
What hormone is secreted at night and increased during longer winter nights?
Melatonin
51
What hormone is secreted at night and increases during longer nights?
Melatonin
## Footnote
Melatonin plays a crucial role in regulating circadian rhythms.
52
What is acclimatization?
A change in an animal’s physiology as it adjusts to changes in its external environment
## Footnote
An example includes adaptation to altitude changes.
53
What is thermoregulation?
The process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within the upper and lower limits of the set point.
54
What can happen if body temperatures fall outside the set point limits?
* Reduce efficiency of enzymatic reactions
* Alter fluidity of cellular membranes
* Affect temperature-sensitive biochemical processes
* Potentially lead to fatal results.
55
What are endothermic animals?
Animals that generate heat by metabolism, including birds and mammals.
56
How do ectothermic animals gain heat?
From external sources, such as the environment.
57
What is one main advantage of endotherms over ectotherms?
Endotherms can maintain a stable body temperature despite large fluctuations in environmental temperature.
58
What is the energetic cost of endothermy compared to ectothermy?
Endothermy is more energetically expensive than ectothermy.
59
How do ectotherms typically adjust their body temperature?
By behavioral means, such as seeking shade or basking in the sun.
60
What is the difference between poikilotherms and homeotherms?
* Poikilotherms: Body temperature varies with the environment
* Homeotherms: Body temperature is relatively constant.
61
What are the four physical processes through which organisms exchange heat?
* Radiation
* Evaporation
* Convection
* Conduction.
62
What is the essence of thermoregulation?
Maintaining a rate of heat gain that equals the rate of heat loss.
63
What role does the integumentary system play in thermoregulation?
It involves skin, hair, and nails to regulate body temperature.
64
What are five adaptations that help animals thermoregulate?
* Insulation
* Circulatory adaptations
* Cooling by evaporative heat loss
* Behavioral responses
* Adjusting metabolic heat production.
65
What is insulation in the context of thermoregulation?
A major thermoregulatory adaptation that reduces heat flow between an animal’s body and its environment.
66
What is vasodilation?
The increase of blood flow in the skin, facilitating heat loss.
67
What is vasoconstriction?
The decrease of blood flow in the skin, lowering heat loss.
68
What is countercurrent exchange?
A heat exchange mechanism that transfers heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions.
69
How do many mammals and birds cool down when the environmental temperature is high?
Through evaporation, such as sweating or bathing.
70
What is thermogenesis?
The adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature.
71
What is nonshivering thermogenesis?
Increased metabolic activity in mitochondria caused by hormones.
72
What is brown fat, and what is its role?
A tissue specialized for rapid heat production found in some mammals, especially infants.
73
How can birds and some nonavian reptiles raise body temperature?
Through shivering.
74
How do social behaviors contribute to thermoregulation in endotherms?
Animals like Emperor penguins may huddle together to conserve heat.
75
What is one method honeybees use to regulate temperature in their hive?
Transporting water and fanning with their wings.
76
What is acclimatization in thermoregulation?
Adjustment of insulation in birds and mammals to seasonal temperature changes
## Footnote
Example: Growing thicker fur in winter and shedding it in summer
77
What change occurs in the lipid composition of cell membranes?
It may change with temperature
78
What do some ectotherms produce in subzero temperatures?
Antifreeze compounds to prevent ice formation in cells
79
Where are the sensors responsible for thermoregulation located in mammals?
In the hypothalamus
80
What mechanisms does the hypothalamus trigger?
Heat loss or heat-generating mechanisms
81
What does fever reflect in response to infections?
An increase in the normal range for the biological thermostat
82
How do some ectothermic organisms respond to infections?
By seeking warmer environments to increase their body temperature
83
What determines an animal's nutritional needs?
Bioenergetics, the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal
84
How can organisms be classified based on energy acquisition?
By how they obtain chemical energy: Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
85
What do autotrophs do?
Harness light energy to build energy-rich molecules
86
What do heterotrophs do?
Harvest chemical energy from food
87
What is ATP and its role?
Energy-containing molecule used to power cellular work
88
What is biosynthesis?
Includes body growth, repair, synthesis of storage material, and production of gametes
89
What is metabolic rate?
The sum of all the energy an animal uses in a unit of time
90
What can metabolic rate be determined by?
* Heat loss
* Oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced
* Measuring energy content of food consumed and energy lost in waste products
91
What is basal metabolic rate (BMR)?
The metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest, with an empty stomach, and not experiencing stress
92
What is standard metabolic rate (SMR)?
The metabolic rate of a fasting, non-stressed ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature
93
How do metabolic rates differ between ectotherms and endotherms?
Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms of comparable size
94
What factors affect metabolic rates?
* Age
* Sex
* Size
* Activity
* Temperature
* Nutrition
95
How is metabolic rate related to body mass?
It is roughly proportional to body mass to the power of three-quarters (m^3/4)
96
What happens to energy costs per gram of tissue as body size increases?
Energy costs decrease but a larger fraction of body tissue is needed for exchange, support, and locomotion
97
How does activity affect metabolic rate?
Maximum metabolic rate is inversely related to the duration of the activity
98
What is torpor?
A physiological state of decreased activity and metabolism
99
What is the purpose of torpor?
To save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions
100
What is hibernation?
Long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
101
What is summer torpor called?
Estivation
102
What happens to metabolic rates during hibernation?
They can be 20 times lower than normal body temperature maintenance
103
What ceases operation during hibernation in the European hamster?
The molecular components of the circadian clock
104
What is the focus of the study by M. A. Chappell et al. on voluntary running in deer mice?
Speed, distance, energy costs, and temperature effects
## Footnote
This study was published in the Journal of Experimental Biology in 2004.
105
What does the study by T. M. Ellis and M. A. Chappell investigate?
Metabolism, temperature relations, maternal behavior, and reproductive energetics in the ball python (Python regius)
## Footnote
This study appeared in the Journal of Comparative Physiology B in 1987.
106
What is the significance of feedback control in biological systems?
It is a key concept that regulates physiological processes
## Footnote
Feedback control mechanisms maintain homeostasis within organisms.
107
True or False: The work mentioned is protected by United States copyright laws.
True
## Footnote
The copyright protects the integrity of the work and restricts dissemination.
108
What are the restrictions on the use of this work?
Dissemination or sale is not permitted, and it should only be used by instructors
## Footnote
The materials are meant for teaching and assessing student learning.
109
Fill in the blank: The work and materials should never be made available to students except by _______.
[instructors]
## Footnote
Instructors should use the accompanying text in their classes.
110
What is the expected behavior of recipients of this work?
To abide by the restrictions and honor the intended pedagogical purposes
## Footnote
This ensures that other instructors relying on these materials are not negatively affected.
