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Biology Module 6 > Chapter 4 - Cloning and biotechnology > Flashcards

Chapter 4 - Cloning and biotechnology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is cloning?

A

The production of genetically identical copies of cells or organisms

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2
Q

What are advantages to natural cloning?

A
  • It is relatively rapid so populations can increase quickly to take advantage of suitable environmental conditions
  • Reproduction can be carried out if there is only one parent and sexual reproduction is not possible
  • If conditions for growth are good for the parent, they will be good for the offspring
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3
Q

What are disadvantages of natural cloning?

A
  • Offspring may become overcrowded
  • No genetic diversity (except that caused by mutation)/ little variation
  • Selection is not possible
  • If the environment changes to be less advantageous, the whole population is susceptible
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4
Q

What is biotechnology?

A

The use of living organisms in industrial processes and can be used to produce food, drugs and other products relatively quickly and cheaply.

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5
Q

What are artificial clones of animals used for?

A

To increase numbers of selected individuals which display desired characteristics.

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6
Q

What is vegetative propagation?

A

Reproduction from vegetative parts of a plant - usually an over-wintering organ

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7
Q

What is the process of micropropagation?

A
  1. Cut a part of the plant (usually meristem) into lots of small explants
  2. Sterilise explants with ethanol
  3. Place explants onto sterile growth medium
  4. Once a callus has formed, divide it to produce lots of small clumps of undifferentiated cells
  5. The cells are moved to different growth mediums to stimulate them to grow, divide and differentiate
  6. Once small plantlets are formed, they are transferred to a greenhouse to acclimatise to normal growing conditions
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8
Q

What are two examples of natural cloning?

A
  • Identical twins: fertilized egg divides and the two daughter cells split to become two separate cells. Each cell grows and develops into a new individual.
  • Water flea and greenfly reproduce asexually to produce clones
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9
Q

What are runners or stolens?

A

Horizontal stems that grow on the surface of the ground and can form roots

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10
Q

What are rhizomes?

A

Horizontal stems that grow underground and can form roots

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11
Q

What are suckers?

A

New stems that grow from the roots of a plant

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12
Q

What are bulbs?

A

They consist of an underground stem from which grow a series of fleshy leaf bases. An over-wintering mechanism for many perennial monocotyledonous plants.

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13
Q

What are corms?

A

An underground stem with scaly leaves and buds. (similar to bulbs but solid rather than fleshy)

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14
Q

What are tubers?

A

Potatoes are tubers - another type of underground stem.

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15
Q

Disadvantages of artificial cloning of plants?

A
  • tissue culture is labour intensive
  • tissue culture can fail due to microbial contamination
  • expensive
  • no genetic variation (except that introduced by mutation)
  • cloned offspring are genetically identical so are susceptible to the same diseases
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16
Q

Advantages of artificial cloning of plants?

A
  • Quicker than growing from sexual reproduction
  • Cloning can be carried out where sexual reproduction is not possible
  • Offspring are uniform in their phenotype, making them easier to grow and harvest
  • Offspring will have the same desirable characteristics as the parent plant
  • New plant is free from viruses as apical bud is used as an explant for tissue culture
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17
Q

How is a cutting made?

A
  1. Stem of a healthy plant is cut at a slant between two nodes
  2. Dip the cut end in rooting powder
  3. Place in in soil and add water
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18
Q

What are the two main techniques to achieve reproductive cloning?

A

Embryo twinning - splitting an embryo to create two genetically identical embryos
Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) - a technique that involves transferring the nucleus from a somatic cell to an egg cell

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19
Q

What is the definition of enucleation?

A

Removal of the cell nucleus

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20
Q

What is meant by totipotent?

A

Cells that can divide into all types of cell found in the adult organism.

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21
Q

What is the use of reproductive cloning?

A
  • Selective breeding produces elite farm animals
  • Genetic modification produces animals with unusual characteristics
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22
Q

What is the process of embryo splitting?

A
  1. A zygote is created by IVF
  2. The zygote is allowed to divide by mitosis to form a small ball of cells
  3. The cells are seperated and continue dividing
  4. Each small mass of cells is placed into to uterus of a surrogate
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23
Q

What is the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)?

A
  1. Enucleation of an egg cell
  2. Isolation of a somatic (body) cell from the adult to be cloned (nucleus may be removed)
  3. Empty egg cell is fused with the somatic cell or its nucleus by an electric shock, which triggers the egg cell to start developing
  4. The cell undergoes mitosis to produce a small ball of cells
  5. The young embryo is placed into the uterus of a surrogate mother
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24
Q

What are uses of non-reproductive cloning?

A

Therapeutic cloning is used for skin grafts, replacing diseased organs, restoring the capability to produce insulin in the pancreas.
Cloning is also used for scientific research.

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25
Q

Advantages of artificial cloning of animals?

A
  • Can produce a whole herd of animals with high yield/ high value
  • Testing medicinal drugs on cloned cells and tissues avoids using animals or people for testing
  • Increase numbers of endangered species
  • Can produce cells and tissues genetically identical to the donor to repair damage caused by disease/ accidents
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26
Q

Disadvantages of artificial cloning of animals?

A
  • Lack of genetic variation in a herd means all animals can be harmed/ killed by the same disease/ pests
  • Cloned animals may be less healthy and have shorter life spans (ethical issue)
  • Ethical issue using embryos for scientific research regarding how long the embryo survives
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27
Q

What are some examples of biotechnology for food?

A
  • ethanol in beer and wine (yeast)
  • CO2 to make bread rise (yeast)
  • lactic acid for yoghurt and cheese (lactobacilli bacteria)
  • soya (yeast)
28
Q

What are some examples of biotechnology for pharmaceutical drugs?

A
  • penicillin (fungus)
  • Insulin (genetically-modified bacteria)
29
Q

What are some examples of biotechnology for enzymes?

A
  • protease and lipase in washing powders (bacteria)
  • pectinase to extract juice from fruit (fungus)
  • amylase to digest starch to sugar (fungus)
  • protease to tenderise meat (fungus)
30
Q

What are some examples of biotechnology for other products?

A
  • Biogas - CO2 &CH4 (anaerobic bacteria)
  • Bioremediation (cleaning waste water)
31
Q

What are some advantages of using microorganisms in biotechnology?

A
  • relatively cheap and easy to grow (high yield)
  • not climate-dependent so can take place anywhere globally
  • process takes place at lower temperatures which reduces cost and saves fuel
  • process takes place at normal a.t.p which is safer than using chemical reactions
  • microorganisms have a short life cycle and reproduce quickly
  • fewer ethical considerations
32
Q

How are microorganisms used in the production of yoghurt?

A

Fermentation:
1. The bacteria ‘lactobacillus bulgaricus’ covert lactose into lactic acid through anaerobic respiration.
2. The acidity denatures the milk causing it to coagulate.
3. The bacteria partially digest the milk, making it easy to digest.

33
Q

How are microorganisms used in the production of cheese?

A
  1. Milk is fermented using lactobacillus
  2. Once acidified milk is mixed with rennet which contains rennin and coagulates the milk protein casein (made insoluble by the break down of kappa-casein) in the presence of calcium ions
  3. The resulting solid called curd is separated from the liquid component by cutting, stirring and heating.
  4. Curd is pressed into moulds
34
Q

How are microorganisms used in baking?

A

Uses Saccharomyces cerevisiae -single-celled fungus
1. Ingredients are mixed together to produce dough
2. Fermentation as the dough is left for the yeast to anaerobically respire to produce CO2 bubbles, causing the dough to rise
3. The risen dough is baked, evaporating any alcohol

35
Q

How are microorganisms used in alcoholic beverages?

A

Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae uses fructose and glucose in the grapes skin when they are crushed to anaerobically respire and produce carbon dioxide and alcohol

36
Q

How are microorganisms used in food?

A

Fungus Fusarium venenatum used for mycoprotein (e.g. Quorn)

37
Q

Which conditions must be controlled in fermenters during commercial drug production?

A
  • Temperature
  • Nutrients available (sources of carbon, nitrogen, minerals and vitamins)
  • pH
  • Oxygen availability (organisms respire aerobically)
  • Concentration of product (toxic products could build up)
38
Q

How is a fermenter sterilised?

A

Superheated steam

39
Q

What is the purpose of the motor on a fermenter?

A

Rotates the blades (impellers) to mix culture evenly

40
Q

What is the purpose of the inlet on a fermenter?

A

Addition of nutrients

41
Q

What is the purpose of the air inlet on a fermenter?

A

Sterile air provides oxygen in aerobic fermenters

42
Q

What is the purpose of the pressure vent on a fermenter?

A

Prevents any gas build up

43
Q

What is the purpose of the water jacket in a fermenter?

A

Allows circulation of water around the fermenter to regulate temperature

44
Q

What is the purpose of the electronic probes on a fermenter?

A

measuring oxygen, pH and temperature levels

45
Q

What are advantages of bioremediation?

A
  • uses natural systems
  • less labour/ equipment required
  • treatment in situ
  • few waste products
  • less risk of exposure to clean-up personnel
46
Q

What is a culture?

A

A population of one type of organism that has been grown under controlled conditions to obtain lots of the microorganism or a useful product

47
Q

What is a continuous culture?

A
  • Broth is continuously topped up with nutrients as they are used
  • Some broth is removed periodically to remove dead organisms
  • Primary metabolites are produced during the active growth phase and can be removed throughout the process, e.g. insulin
48
Q

What is a batch culture?

A
  • Closed culture is set up with a limited amount of nutrient
  • Allowed to ferment for a specific time
  • Secondary metabolites are produced after the active growth phase (in the stationary phase) and can be harvested from the culture at the end, e.g. penicillin
49
Q

What is a closed culture?

A

A culture which has no exchange of nutrients or gases with the external environment.

50
Q

What is happening in the lag phase?

A

Adapting to new conditions (e.g. synthesising enzymes or cell growth)

51
Q

What is happening in the log/ exponential phase?

A

Population is reproducing

52
Q

What is happening in the stationary phase?

A

Rate of death and reproduction is the same

53
Q

What is happening in the death/ decline phase?

A

Nutrients run out and waste becomes lethal

54
Q

What is a serial dilution?

A

A sequence of dilutions used to reduce the concentration of a solution or suspension.

55
Q

What are some aseptic techniques used when working with microorganism cultures?

A
  • wash hands
  • disinfect working area
  • Have a Bunsen burner operating nearby to heat the air
  • As you open and close a vessel, keep the neck of the bottle over the flame to to prevent bacteria in the air entering the bottle
  • Any glass/ metal equipment passed through a flame before and after contact with microorganisms
56
Q

What is inoculation?

A

Introduction of microorganisms to the sterile medium through streaking, seeding, spreading or use of a moistened cotton swab

57
Q

What apparatus is used to sterilise a medium by heating?

A

Autoclave

58
Q

What is an immobilised enzyme?

A

An enzyme that is held in place and not free to diffuse through the solution.

59
Q

What are some advantages of immobilising enzymes?

A
  • Extraction costs are lower as enzymes don’t mix with the product
  • Enzymes can be reused
  • A continuous process is made easier as there are no cells requiring nutrients, reproducing and releasing waste products
  • Enzymes are surrounded by the immobilising matrix, protecting them from extreme conditions
60
Q

What are methods used to immobilise enzymes?

A
  • Adsorption: Enzymes bound to a supporting surface (e.g. clay) by hydrophobic interactions and ionic links. They are bound with active site exposed.
  • Covalent bonding: Enzymes bound to a supporting surface (e.g. clay) by strong covalent bonds The enzymes are bonded using a cross-linking agent, linking them in a chain.
    Entrapment: Enzymes trapped in a network of cellulose fibres that doesn’t allow free movement. Substrate and product molecules can pass through the fibres.
61
Q

What is are disadvantages to adsorption?

A
  • The bonding forces are not always strong and enzymes can become easily detached and leak into the reaction mixture.
  • The active site may become slightly distorted.
62
Q

What are disadvantages and advantages to covalent bonding?

A

-ve:
- expensive
- can distort enzymes active site
+ve:
- less likely to become detached and leak into reaction mixture

63
Q

what is a disadvantage of entrapment?

A

Only suitable for processes where the substrate and product molecules are relatively small

64
Q

What are some industrial uses of immobilised enzymes?

A
  • Glucose isomerase: converts glucose to fructose, replacement for sucrose
  • Penicillin acylase: formation of semi-synthetic penicillin’s (such as amoxicillin)
  • Lactase: converts lactose to glucose and galactose by hydrolysis, used to produce lactose-free milk
  • Aminoacylase: a hydrolase used to produce L-amino acids which are used to synthesise pharmaceutical and agrochemical compounds
  • Glucoamylase: converts dextrins to glucose, used to digest sources of starch & in fermentation processes
65
Q

What are some disadvantages of using microorganisms in industrial processes?

A
  • time-consuming
  • aseptic condition are required
  • microorganisms can be killed by product

Biology Module 6 (6 decks)

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