Chapter 4: Attention

Question 1

Define “attention”

Answer 1

The ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations.

Question 2

Define “selective attention”

Answer 2

Paying attention to one thing while ignoring others (e.g. Focusing on HW while others are talking)

Question 3

Define “distraction”

Answer 3

When one stimulus interferes with the processing of another stimulus.

Question 4

Define “divided attention”

Answer 4

Paying attention to more than one thing at a time

Question 5

Define “attentional capture”

Answer 5

A rapid shifting of attention caused by a suddenly occurring stimulus (e.g. Loud noise) - adaptive!

Question 6

What is the cocktail party effect?

Answer 6

The ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli.

Question 7

What are the stages of Broadbent’s model of attention?

Answer 7

(Entrance of info)
1. Sensory memory: Holds ALL of the incoming info for a fraction of a second, then transfers it to the filter.

2. Filter: Processes the PHYSICAL characteristics of the message (e.g. The tone, accent of the voice)
3. Detector: Processes the higher-level characteristics, such as the MEANING of the message.
4. Short-term memory: holds info for 10-15 seconds.
5. Long-term memory: Can hold info indefinitely.

Question 8

Why is Broadbent’s model referred to as a bottleneck model?

Answer 8

Because the filter restricts the amount of information that will be processed later on. (However, unlike a bottle, this filter doesn’t only slow the flow of info, but keeps a large portion of it from even getting through!)

Question 9

Why is Broadbent’s model referred to as an early selection model?

Answer 9

Because the filter eliminates unattended/irrelevant info right at the BEGINNING of the flow of info!

Question 10

What are the stages of Treisman’s attenuation model of selective attention?

Answer 10

1. Attenuator

2. Dictionary unit

Question 11

What is the role of the attenuator?

Answer 11

Processes the message in 3 parts:
1. Physical characteristics (tone, accent)

2. Language (how the message is grouped into syllables and words)
3. Meaning

(Note: The attenuator represents a process, and doesn’t involve a specific brain structure)

Question 12

What is the role of the dictionary unit? What is the difference between high and low threshold words?

Answer 12

The DU contains words that are stored in memory, each of which have a threshold for being activated.

• HIGH threshold words can only be detected when we are paying full attention to it (e.g. Unimportant or uncommon words)
• LOW threshold words are easily detected, and we may respond even when they arrive through the unattended message channel (e.g. Our name)

Question 13

Why is Treisman’s model referred to as the “leaky filter” model?

Answer 13

Because both the attended and unattended messages pass through the attenuator, only at different strengths!

1. Attended and unattended messages are identified up to the necessary level (e.g. If the tone of voice is different, then only analyzed to physical level. If voices are similar, then move on to be analyzed at the language level)
2. Both messages pass through, but the attended message emerges at FULL strength, while the unattended at a much weaker strength.

Question 14

What is a late selection model?

How does Mackay’s experiment on biasing words and ambiguous sentences support this model?

Answer 14

Late selection models suggest that messages can be selected at a later stage of processing, based primarily on MEANING.

Mackay’s experiment:

• Ps were presented with ambiguous sentence in attended ear, and biasing word in unattended ear.
• Ps asked to pick sentence that most closely matches the ambiguous sentence.
• Results showed that ps picked meaning that matched the biasing word (e.g. Interpreted bank to mean riverbank if the biasing word was “river”)

Question 15

Is the early or late selection model more accurate?

Answer 15

Neither - both early and late selection can be demonstrated, depending on the type of stimuli and task of the individual!

Question 16

Define “processing capacity”

Answer 16

Amount of info that one can handle (sets a limit on one’s ability to process incoming info)

Question 17

Define “perceptual load”

Answer 17

Perceived difficulty of task

*Low-load tasks use up a small amount of one’s processing capacity, while high-load tasks use up more of one’s processing capacity.

Question 18

How does Lavie’s “load theory of attention” explain why people are more easily distracted when doing an easy/low-load task?

Answer 18

• Low-load tasks use fewer cognitive resources, which leaves room for processing irrelevant stimuli.
  (On the other hand, high-load tasks use up a lot of cognitive resources, so we are less likely to be distracted)

Question 19

How does Lavie’s “load theory of attention” explain why people are more easily distracted when doing an easy/low-load task?

Answer 19

• Low-load tasks use fewer cognitive resources, which leaves room for processing irrelevant stimuli.
  (On the other hand, high-load tasks use up a lot of cognitive resources, so we are less likely to be distracted)

*However, the strength of task irrelevant stimuli also matters - e.g. If a siren wails while you are studying, you are likely to be distracted!

Question 20

What is the Stroop effect? What does it illustrate about task-irrelevant stimuli?

Answer 20

Task: Ps were asked to name the color of the ink used to print words that described a different color (e.g. The word “yellow” printed in orange - ps had to say “orange”)

This is an example of how task-irrelevant stimuli (i.e. The word) can be very powerful, as reading words is a highly practiced, almost automatic process that is hard to ignore!)

Question 21

Define “overt attention”

Answer 21

Shifting attention from one place to another by MOVING THE EYES

Question 22

Define “covert attention”

Answer 22

Shifting attention from one place to another WHILE KEEPING EYES STATIONARY

Question 23

What is the difference between central and peripheral vision? Why do we need to scan pictures to see details clearly?

Answer 23

Objects in central vision fall on the fovea, which has much better detail vision than the peripheral retina. Scanning pictures allows us to focus our central vision on different parts of a scene.

Question 24

What is saccadic eye movement?

Answer 24

Moving eyes from one fixation to another in order to observe different parts of a scene.

Question 25

What are some factors that affect how people shift their attention (think: top-down and bottom-up cues)?

Answer 25

1. Stimulus salience (bottom-up) - Physical properties of a stimulus (e.g. When you’re looking for something of a particular color
2. Cognitive factors (top-down) - Guided by personal interests or scene schemas (expectations about what is normally contained in a scene)
3. Task demands: actions involved in task determines eye movement (Eye movements usually precede motor actions by a fraction of a second)

Question 26

What was the principle behind the precueing experiment

Answer 26

Method: Ps asked to keep eyes stationary (covert attention). Arrow cue on screen would indicate which side they should direct their attention. Ps asked to press button when they saw a square appear.

Findings: Ps responded more quickly when square appeared on the side that the arrow cue was pointing to.

Significance: Information processing is more effective at the place where our attention is directed (Attention is like a spotlight).

Question 27

What is the same-object advantage?

Answer 27

When attention is directed to one place on a given object, the enhancing effect of the attention may also spread to other places on the object (i.e. We will be more sensitive to changes in other areas on the SAME object).

Question 28

What is automatic processing?

Answer 28

A type of processing that occurs unintentionally and does not take up too many cognitive resources. (Possible when tasks are well-practiced and relatively easy, such as everyday motor skills like typing)

Question 29

What makes driving while using a cell phone dangerous?

Answer 29

NOT driving with one hand, but driving with fewer cognitive resources!

Question 30

Define “inattentional blindness”

Answer 30

Not attending to something that is clearly visible (if you don’t direct your attention at something, you can become blind to something that is right in front of you!)

Question 31

What is change blindness?

Answer 31

Not being able to detect obvious changes in a scene

*If you know where to look, it becomes obvious - shows the importance of attention for perception!

Question 32

Is it a problem that our perceptual system can only focus on a small portion of our environment at a time?

Answer 32

No, it is actually adaptive - makes optimal use of our limited cognitive resources by focusing only on what is important

*(and our brain fills in other things that you are not paying attention to - scene schemas also help with this)

Question 33

What is the “binding” function of attention? Why do we need binding?

Answer 33

How we combine features (color, form, motion, location) to create our perceptions.

*Remember: Localization of function in the brain means that different areas of the cortex respond to different qualities - thus, we need binding to combine individual features of an object.

Question 34

What is Treisman’s feature integration theory? What are the stages involved?

Answer 34

1. Preattentive stage: Objects are analyzed into separate features (occurs even before we become conscious of the object)
2. Focused attention stage: Paying attention to object (and top-down knowledge from past experiences) facilitates combining of features

Question 35

How does the phenomenon of illusory conjunctions support the idea that features are separated in the preattentive stage?

Answer 35

Illusory conjunctions are when we wrongly combine features from different stimuli (esp. likely when briefly flashed in a lab setting)

This happens because during the preattentive stage, features of objects are “free-floating” and can be incorrectly combined when only briefly seen.

Question 36

How does the case of LM (Balint’s syndrome patient) provide evidence for the focused attention stage?

Answer 36

Patient with Balint’s syndrome/inability to focus attention was unable to combine features, even after viewing stimuli for 10+ seconds

• Shows that attention is crucial for combo of features.

Question 37

What is a type of visual search that is particularly useful for studying binding?

Answer 37

CONJUNCTION SEARCH
- Look for objects that are a combo of 2+ features (e.g. Red, horizontal line)

Findings:
- Balint’s patient was only able to do a feature search (1 feature) but unable to do a conjunction search.

Question 38

What do topographic maps demonstrates about how attention affects perception?

Answer 38

Topographic maps (spatial map of visual stimuli on the visual cortex) demonstrate that ATTENTION INCREASES ACTIVITY AT THE LOCATIONS ON THE BRAIN’S TOPOGRAPHIC MAP THAT REPRESENT THE OBJECT THAT ATTENTION IS BEING DIRECTED TOWARDS. (e.g. Looking at faces makes fusiform face area light up)