Chapter 4 Flashcards
supercharging a song with secondary dominants
What is a secondary dominant?
The primary dominant is only on the fifth of the major scale (the V7). A secondary dominant, however, can be constructed on other scale degrees – especially the second, third and sixth degrees, which in the harmonised diatonic scale are minor chords.
If we change these minor triads to major dominant sevenths, raising the flattened third degree by a semitone and adding the flattened seventh (e.g., iii to III7, vi to VI7, etc.), they can also take on the dominant function.
What is another name for the III7?
(‘V of vi’)
What is the benefit of using secondary dominant chords?
They increase a songwriter’s ‘master source’ of chords by bringing II7, III7, VI7 and VII7 into the equation in addition to ii, iii, vi and vii.
Do secondary dominants always have to have the b7? Do they always have to be 7th chords?
No. While these chords are traditionally termed dominants, the 7 itself may not always be present, as it is in the primary dominant 7th. It is the major incarnation of the chord that is essential. (they could be thought of as secondary majors).
Nevertheless, the dominant seventh is common and adds a harder, bluesier texture while contributing to what we will see to be effective voice-leading.
What are functioning secondary dominants?
the function of the secondary dominant is usually to intensify the resolution to the next chord in any Cycle Of Fifths movement by effectively creating just another ‘V7-I’ move.
These are called functioning secondary dominants because they always function as what we can term a ‘local V’, resolving to a chord down a fifth interval.
What is another name for the II7?
(the ‘V of V’)
there=ii
yeah=II7
you=V7
It seems that the verse is set to end with a familiar Bm ii-V. At the last minute, they make two changes to the minor chord, adding the major 3rd and the 7th to lead us – now with B7 to the E7 chord.
The B7 is a functioning secondary dominant (here a II7). It functions as the V of the primary V chord, it is often referred to as ‘the five of five’.
What is another name for the VI7?
(the ‘V of ii’ or ‘V of II’)
A functioning secondary dominant built on the sixth note of the scale would be the major ‘VI7’ rather than ‘vi’. This in turn can be similarly thought of as ‘V of II’ (or ‘V of ii’), as it leads us directly to either the major or minor triad built on the second degree of the scale, with the same root move of a fifth.
What is the I-VI7-II7-V7?
laugh=I
and=VI7
sun=II7
I’ve=V7
Laugh about= I
A functioning secondary dominant built on the sixth note of the scale would be the major ‘VI7’ rather than ‘vi’. This can be thought of as ‘V of II’ (or ‘V of ii’), as it leads us directly to either the major or minor triad built on the second degree of the scale, with the same root move of a fifth.
We now have the major sequence: I-VI7-II7-V7, a bluesy version of the otherwise identical Doo-Wop turnaround.
How is “ I call your name” an example of the I-VI7-II7-V7?
“Name”=I7
“There”= VI7
“Blame”=II7
“Unfair”=V7
What is the I-VI7-ii-V7 variation on the I-VI7-II7-V7?
When songs open with the same strong I-VI7 move and proceed around the cycle with the same root movement – but actually retain the ‘sweeter’ ii minor rather than switching it to II7.
“Joan”= I
“Studied”=VI7
“science”=ii
“home” =ii7
“late nights”=V7
“oh,oh,oh”=I
What is the II7 and the ‘Imperfect Cadence’ – ‘the middle feeling’ ?
Just as we saw Imperfect cadences cued by ii minor (e.g., ‘It Won’t Be Long’), so we can find a II-V or II7-V7 sequence that ends a progression – again without having resolved satisfactorily to the tonic. Again the V chord seems to take on a life of its own – as if the key centre had briefly shifted to it – a feeling to which the II7 contributes more strongly than the ii minor. One songwriting expert even re-christens the Imperfect cadence ‘the middle feeling’ as it tends to occur in the middle of a song
How is “I Will” an example of II7 and the ‘Imperfect Cadence’ – ‘the middle feeling’ ?
Prior to this point in the song, all the G chords have been minor (ii chords). But now the G7 sets up V as we reach the crux of the song. The melody even makes use of the new, non-diatonic B note on the words ‘when we’re’, taking us in leading-note fashion to the C note, the root of the same V chord. And, of course, melodically, this ‘5’ (the C of ‘apart’) denies us the peaceful tonic.
Love=IV
ever=iii
we’re=iv
Love=II7
apart=V7
How does “Ill get you “ use II7 and the ‘Imperfect Cadence’ – ‘the middle feeling’ ?
It’s no surprise, given how the device leaves us hanging in suspense, that the Imperfect cadence is usually associated with a suitably poignant lyrical message.
gonna=IV
gonna=I
might as well= II7
me=V
How does “1 after 909 “ use II7 and the ‘Imperfect Cadence’ – ‘the middle feeling’ ?
Given the very term ‘middle eight’, the listener is expecting the verse to resume after eight bars culminating in the first Imperfect cadence – yet we are duly thwarted as the progression repeats. The fact this harmonic ‘bum steer’ coincides sublimely with the lyrics ‘wrong location’ speaks for itself.
pick up my bags=IV7
run=I7
railman=II7
wrong location=V7
v7 leads to IV not I!
pick up my bags=IV7
run=I7
Then I=II7
number wrong=V7
How does “Rockey Racoon” use the II7 and the Cycle Of Fifths?
the use of II7 in a more prominent Cycle Of Fifths setting helps us make another quantum leap towards an appreciation of more sophisticated Beatles songwriting. McCartney’s ‘Rocky Racoon’ is one song that illustrates this perfectly. The song eventually emerges as clearly in C major; yet it starts on the relative minor (vi) which is soon confirmed as heading for the home tonic via a II-V.
Rocky=vi7
into=ii7
only=V7
bible=I
Rocky=vi7
equipped=ii7
shoot=V7
rival=I
What is another term for the III7 and how is it used?
(the ‘V of vi’, or ‘V of VI’)
It may seem innocuous in this context, but the use of III7 was evidence of slick songwriting in the early days of rock ‘n’ roll. II7 was everywhere, but the ‘supercharged mediant’ – whose task is now to create a sense of anticipation for either the vi or VI7 – was a much rarer, acquired taste.
ask you=I
very=III7
confidentially=VI7
aint=II7
she=V7
sweet=I
How can the III7 be used in an opening gambit for a bridge?
You can use The III7 as an opening gambit for a bridge idea. This was done in ‘You Can’t Do That’, where a B7 chord reinforced by it’s rogue major 3rd in the melody combine to capture the singer’s gloating.
green= III7—-vi
i’m=ii
won=iii
Again, think of III7 as ‘V of vi’, as the chord is really only destined for the relative minor. The cyclicality of the move should also be highlighted. The Bm technically upsets the root movement in fifths, its a nifty relative minor substitute for the D chord that would have led us back, V-I, to G, as it does second time around.
Can III be used as a secondary major?
Using III, check out the E chord in the bridge to ‘No Reply’. In this case, the 7th has been dropped, because it clashes with the natural 7th in the melody. The target chord is also a major triad, so the principle still applies, as the ‘secondary major’ takes us – with the same expected root movement – from III to VI. Most importantly, The Beatles ensure that the E chord itself falls directly on the word ‘realize’ (and, later, ‘lies’), emphasizing dramatically the sentiment of John’s gripe.
realize=III
I=VI
lies=III
I=VI
How can I-III7-VI7 be used in a more down home RNB blues style?
I-III7-VI7 was famously popularized by the piano giant, Leroy Carr, on standards like ‘Nobody Knows When You’re Down And Out’ That song features the famous opening line ‘Once I lived the life of a millionaire’, a textbook emphasis of I-III7 that reappears in a select list of intricate blues originals,
once=I
life=III7
millionaire=VI—-VI7
How did McCartney use the ‘I-III-vi’ move in “ A World Without Love” ?
Please=I
away=III
dont=vi
inside=I
hide=iv
loneliness=I
‘Your Mother Should Know’ Here’s a song where we conveniently find II7, III7 and VI7 all in one neat progression The verse starts on Am which, it could be argued, appears as an opening tonic minor chord; but as we soon wind up in the key of C, can equally be understood as ‘just’ a vi chord. But watch as it is converted into a secondary dominant, A7, that acts as ‘V of ii’ and ‘V of II’, resolving naturally first to the Dm (in bar 4) and then to D7 – a chord which is itself a secondary secondary dominant II7 acting as a now-familiar ‘V of V’. Finally, there’s the E7, the III7 – or ‘V of vi’ – which acts as a turnaround chord, that takes us back to the Am at the top.
Lets=iv
dance=IV
hit=VI7 Functioning Secondary Dominant
mother=ii
though=V7 Primary Dominant
long=I
ago=VI7 Functioning Secondary Dominant
know=II7Functioning SecondaryDominant
your mother should=V7 PrimaryDom
know=I
sing it again=III7 Functioning Secondary Dominant resolving to iv
VII7 (the ‘V of iii’)
Why is the VII7 a slick way of reaching one of The Beatles’ favorite targets – the mediant?
We’ve already seen how the rare appearance of a minor chord built on the leading tone typically leads down a fifth. And again, this same root movement can be accentuated by replacing the chord with a secondary dominant, just as we have done with ii, vi and iii. The same voice-leading and root movement applies, with the target for the manoeuvre being this time a iii or III chord of some description.
How does Sexy Sadie use the VII7 (the ‘V of iii’) ?
sexy Sadie= I——VII7
Functioning secondary Donminant——
What have you done= iii
In both theory and practice VII7 is a perfect starting point for an extreme Cycle Of Fifths journey which can proceed inexorably all the way to I. The jazz standard ‘Mr Sandman’ is perhaps the ultimate blueprint for this, with its beautiful symmetry that runs, in the key C: C-B7-E7-A7-D7-G7-C.
Mr Sandman=I
bring=VII7
make=III7
I’ve=VI7
give=II7
roses=V7
then tell him= I
Moon River the ultimate journey with even VII7 reached from its V. Here vi looks all set to move ii-V-I but, instead, Mancini takes us back ‘upstream’ to the head of the river to begin six successive descents of a fifth
go=V
ing, Im=VII
go=III
ing your=VI
way=II
ay=V
moon=I
VII7 is a perfect starting point for an extreme Cycle Of Fifths journey. ‘Martha My Dear’ itself features a brilliant pastiche of this run, going at least as far as the V chord before opting to ‘buy time’ with a repeated IV-V embellishment rather than cadencing to the root as we would have expected.
Martha=I
spend=VII7
days=iii
sation=VI7
please=ii
me=V7
martha my love= IV—–V
dont forget me= IV——V
Martha my dear=IV——-V
The tonic secondary dominant ‘V of IV’ – The I7-IV change
Secondary dominants aren’t necessarily limited to the minor ‘slots’ in the major scale. In certain situations the tonic I chord function is understood as the V of the subdominant: ‘V of IV’. The Beatles enjoyed moving to the IV through various types of ‘prepared’ I7 or I9 chords in different songs. ‘This Boy’, is a case-study for exploring a range of secondary dominants.
this boy= II7
wants you= V
again= I
oh and= I9—-I7
this boy= IV
happy= III7
love you= vi
my= I9—-I7
that boy= IV
happy=II9
Til= V
This boy= I
Again, it could be argued that we’ve left the key of D, to the key of the IV chord, G (this is reinforced by re-hearing the dominant of G, the D7, during the bridge). But we quickly return to the D tonic in midstream, and the effect reflects the singer attempting (albeit unsuccessfully) to break free from his frustrations.
What are Non-Functioning Secondary Dominants?
They are secondary dominants built on these same scale degrees but not followed by root movements down a fifth (or up a fourth). In a sense, these chords (many of which appear as just major triads) function in the same way as they set up the same feeling of anticipation for the impending change. But, crucially, the move is thwarted as the song now heads down an alternative avenue.
How can the II7 be used as a non-functioning secondary dominant?
ooh= I
love= II7 Non-Functioning II chord
guess= IV
true=I
The first of these is the non-functioning secondary II7 within the four-chord cycle, I-II-IV-I, a sequence that can be seen as an important trademark of several mid-period Beatles songs:
How can the II7 be used as a non-functioning secondary dominant in “You Wont See Me?”
Call= I
up=II7
lines=IV
engaged=I
As far as root movement is concerned, the dark, sometimes ‘rocky’, minor third interval (here between II and IV) created a versatile, modern sound in the mid-sixties.
How does Voice-Leading in I-II-IV-I work?
Aside from the root movement, the more subconscious effect of the sequence’s descending counterpoint line facilitated by the one vital new note: G# in the case of ‘Eight Days A Week’ (the major 3rd of the II triad). Now the 3rd of the II, makes for ‘an unorthodox but excellent leading tone’ – one that now descends to the root of the IV.
How does the ‘vi-II-IV-I’ variation on the I-II-IV-I work create a Cycle Of Fifths movement that is deceptively thwarted by a Plagal cadence which lends a rock or gospel flavor depending on the context?
Shes=iv7
home=II7
bye=IV—-I Plagal Cadence
The first chord in the sequence is replaced by its relative minor in a straightforward ‘vi-for-I’ substitution, to create ‘vi-II-IV-I’.
How does “In My Life” use the ‘vi-II-IV-I’ ?
dead=vi
living=II
my=iv7
loved=I
‘In My Life’ can be seen to incorporate the essence of this concept: a II that shuns the expected V tension in favor of the more subtle IV subdominant.
How does ‘Like Dreamers Do’, thwart the expected Cycle Of Fifths movement by means of nonfunctioning secondary dominant III7?
and I= I
kiss= III7
bliss= ii
like= V7
do= I
A ‘I-vi’ move here would have copied the Doo Wop cycle. But the III7 at the start of the bridge avoids the cliché bringing poignancy to the word ‘bliss’– by sliding down a second interval to prompt a ii-V-I cadence.
How can a nonfunctioning III be used as tension building device on its way to IV?
yes= I
true=III
yes=IV
true= I
Here a major III appears for the first time in the song especially to create a final highlight before the final Plagal drop to I.
I-III7-IV-V7 sequence of ‘Soldier Of Love’
aint= I
you=III7
war= IV
one= V
so= I
How would a “ii- for IV” substitution work in the I-III7-IV-V7 progression?
If you= I
out=III
change= ii
change= V7
‘You’re Going To Lose That Girl’ uses a ‘ii-for-IV’ substitution, keeping intact the voice-leading of the 3rd of III into a strong chord tone (this time the 5th of the ii minor).
How can a non-functioning III be used to deflate proceedings subtly?
can be= III—-iv Functioning Secondary Dominant
can be= III—-iv Functioning Secondary Dominant
feel when its real= iv——III Non Functioning Secondary Dominant
In the first strain, a functioning III takes us predictably to the relative minor in the key of E. But the end of the bridge delivers a slow-motion variation on the ‘vi-III’ plunge, as the G# leaves us hanging in place of the ‘expected’ B7.
Why is a non-functioning VI surprisingly rare?
out=VI=dissonance
This is essentially because the one ‘rogue’ note in the chord (the major 3rd) can also be interpreted as flat 2 in relation to the parent key.
A# is the dissonant flat 2 in the key of A.
How is a “nonfunctioning’ or even ‘truly dysfunctional ’VI chord used in Dr. Robert?
the last Dr. Robert=VI
The A# melody note over an F# chord effectively introduces us to the medicine man himself at upsetting the diatonic security of the key of A.
How is the rare VII7 non functioning dominant used in the four chord cliche Doo wop variation where the tonic drops down to ‘VII major’ before completing the sequence through IV and V in “I’m So Tired” ?
so= I
tired=VII7 Non Functioning Secondary Dominant
haven’t=IV
wink=V7
so=I
tired=vi
my=IV
on=V7
The VII7 could be seen as a straight (if exotic) swap for the expected iv by means of a ‘common tone substitution’ as both chords contain the F# note.
How does “P.S. I love you” use VII7 Non-Functioning Secondary Dominant that leads up a half step to the root?
As=IV
write=VII7
letter=I7
In ‘P.S. I Love You’, McCartney prolongs the chord (over the words ‘write this …’) long enough for a disorientating effect, with stability only restored on the tonic over the word ‘letter’.
Explain the first two chords in “Day Tripper”
a good reason=I7 Bluesey flat 7 primary triad
a good reason=IV7 Bluesy flat 7 subdominant triad
for taking= I7
The opening two chords are easily identifiable within the blues context as major triads embellished with flattened sevenths – just like any other blues-based song. However, just when a standard 12-bar blues looks on the cards, the surprises pile up.
What is the first non-functioning secondary dominant in Day Tripper?
day=II7 Non Functioning Secondary dominant
so=IV7
II7 is the first non-functioning secondary dominant, as it doesn’t move II7-V7 as we’d expect but ascends up that rocky minor third interval to IV.
Where does the IV lead to in Day Tripper?
Long=III7 Functioning Secondary Dominant
out=VI7
out=V7
Then, IV take us back to III7, with the latter now a functioning ‘sec dom’ as it homes in dramatically on VI7. The Beatles achieve extreme emphasis as this is not ‘vi’ but a major VI chord, with that striking E# note making the singer’s act of ‘finding out’ the deception under discussion a musical revelation.
Where does the IV7 lead to in Day Tripper?
out=VI7
out=V7
Similarly, from here the Cycle Of Fifths is not maintained as VI7 doesn’t function in the expected way, reflecting Lennon’s change of tack with regard to the relationship. Instead, the chord moves directly ‘down-a-whole-step’ to the dominant, creating a type of Imperfect cadence. Here VI7 represents an unusual preparation of the V in comparison to the II7 or ii that we’ve encountered so far.
Functioning secondary dominants
II7 (the ‘V of V’)
Think back for a minute to our I-vi-ii-V, Doo Wop cliche. The vi minor chord here happily moved to ii minor courtesy of the tendency of the roots to move down a fifth. However, when ii becomes II7, there is an additional driving force as the major 3rd of the chord now acts a leading tone, ‘wanting’ to resolve upward by that similarly lone semitone to the root of the next chord.
Look at the Bm at the end of the bridge of ‘like Dreamers Do’ - it seems that The Beatles are set to end the verse with a familiar ii-V. But, as if at the last minute, they decide to make two changes to the minor chord, adding the major 3rd and the flat7th to lead us -now, with B7 - almost mechanically to the E7 chord. We duly feel the shift to this musical and lyrical peak more strongly - as if it were now inevitable. The B7 is said to be a functioning secondary dominant (here a II7). More specifically, as it functions as the V of the primary V chord, it is often referred to in modern muso and session parlance as ‘the five of five’. Reflecting this, it can be even notated as just ‘V of V. While potentially confusing, this merely refers to the fact that the II chord, B7, is acting as a V chord in relation to the primary V7 of the key, in this case E7.
VI7 (the ‘V of ii’ or ‘V of ll’)
In just the same way, a functioning secondary dominant built on the sixth note of the scale would be the major ‘VI7, rather than ‘vi’. This in turn can be similarly thought of as ‘V of II’ (or ‘V of ii’), as it leads us directly to either the major or minor triad built on the
second degree of the scale, with the same root move of a fifth. Combine the two new chords and we now have the major sequence: I-VI7-II7-V7, a distinctively bluesy version of the otherwise identical Doo-Wop turnaround. Here’s a great Beatles example from Revolver:
This cycle has a strong blues, R’n’B and jazz heritage which can be traced back at least as far as Delta giant Robert Johnson whose classic ‘They’re Red Hot’.
VI7 (the ‘V of ii’ or ‘V of ll’)
In just the same way, a functioning secondary dominant built on the sixth note of the scale would be the major ‘VI7, rather than ‘vi’. This in turn can be similarly thought of as ‘V of II’ (or ‘V of ii’), as it leads us directly to either the major or minor triad built on the
second degree of the scale, with the same root move of a fifth. Combine the two new chords and we now have the major sequence: I-VI7-II7-V7, a distinctively bluesy version of the otherwise identical Doo-Wop turnaround.
It proved to be a great tool for Tin Pan Alley, powering such jazz classics as the bridge to Gershwin’s ‘I Got Rhythm’ and the main structure of ‘Sweet Georgia Brown’, another influential song in the early Beatles live sets. It’s therefore no surprise that long before the days of ‘Good Day Sunshine’, some of the earliest Beatles songs featured this same idea.
VI7 (the ‘V of ii’ or ‘V of ll’)
In just the same way, a functioning secondary dominant built on the sixth note of the scale would be the major ‘VI7, rather than ‘vi’. This in turn can be similarly thought of as ‘V of II’ (or ‘V of ii’), as it leads us directly to either the major or minor triad built on the
second degree of the scale, with the same root move of a fifth. Combine the two new chords and we now have the major sequence: I-VI7-II7-V7, a distinctively bluesy version of the otherwise identical Doo-Wop turnaround.
Meanwhile, some writers have cited the similarity between ‘Good Day Sunshine’ and John Sebastian’s ‘Daydream’, released at much the same time in mid-1967. The verses of both songs open with the same strong I-VI7 move and proceed around the cycle with the same root movement - though ‘Daydream’ actually retains the ‘sweeter’ ii minor rather than switching it to II7. This ‘hybrid’ variation had been used by Lennon years previously, on what he acknowledges as his very first song ‘Hello Little Girl’
VI7 (the ‘V of ii’ or ‘V of ll’)
In just the same way, a functioning secondary dominant built on the sixth note of the scale would be the major ‘VI7, rather than ‘vi’. This in turn can be similarly thought of as ‘V of II’ (or ‘V of ii’), as it leads us directly to either the major or minor triad built on the
second degree of the scale, with the same root move of a fifth. Combine the two new chords and we now have the major sequence: I-VI7-II7-V7, a distinctively bluesy version of the otherwise identical Doo-Wop turnaround.
Meanwhile, some writers have cited the similarity between ‘Good Day Sunshine’ and John Sebastian’s ‘Daydream’, released at much the same time in mid-1967. The verses of both songs open with the same strong I-VI7 move and proceed around the cycle with the same root movement - though ‘Daydream’ actually retains the ‘sweeter’ ii minor rather than switching it to II7. This ‘hybrid’ variation had been used by Lennon years previously, on what he acknowledges as his very first song ‘Hello Little Girl’ while McCartney
also exploited it (this time in slow motion) as late as Abbey Road.
This I-VI7-ii-V-I structure is part of a great tradition that includes Willie Nelson’s ‘Crazy’ (heard on the definitive Patsy Cline model as B6-G7-Cm-F7-B6).
VI7 (the ‘V of ii’ or ‘V of ll’)
In just the same way, a functioning secondary dominant built on the sixth note of the scale would be the major ‘VI7, rather than ‘vi’. This in turn can be similarly thought of as ‘V of II’ (or ‘V of ii’), as it leads us directly to either the major or minor triad built on the
second degree of the scale, with the same root move of a fifth. Combine the two new chords and we now have the major sequence: I-VI7-II7-V7, a distinctively bluesy version of the otherwise identical Doo-Wop turnaround.
This cycle has a strong blues, R’n’B and jazz heritage which can be traced back at least as far as Delta giant Robert Johnson whose classic ‘They’re Red Hot’ showed the jazzy way his music was headed before his death in 1938.
VI7 (the ‘V of ii’ or ‘V of ll’)
In just the same way, a functioning secondary dominant built on the sixth note of the scale would be the major ‘VI7, rather than ‘vi’. This in turn can be similarly thought of as ‘V of II’ (or ‘V of ii’), as it leads us directly to either the major or minor triad built on the
second degree of the scale, with the same root move of a fifth. Combine the two new chords and we now have the major sequence: I-VI7-II7-V7, a distinctively bluesy version of the otherwise identical Doo-Wop turnaround.
It proved to be a great tool for Tin
Pan Alley, powering such jazz classics as the bridge to Gershwin’s ‘I Got Rhythm
Whatever the quality of the ii chord to which it moves, VI7 is most obvious as a turnaround device at the end of a song. It is frequently used by The Beatles as a repeated tag that takes us ‘around the block’, with VI7 repeatedly priming the ii (or II)-V-I cadence. Hear it blatantly flagged in this cyclical ‘postscript’ role at the end of ‘Hello Little Girl’ over the ‘oh yeah’ lyric. Just to make the point, here it is joined by two other examples - from both ends of The Beatles’ catalogue - all featuring this same, time-honoured lyrical ‘filler’.
Whatever the quality of the ii chord to which it moves, VI7 is most obvious as a turnaround device at the end of a song. It is frequently used by The Beatles as a repeated tag that takes us ‘around the block’, with VI7 repeatedly priming the ii (or II)-V-I cadence. Hear it blatantly flagged in this cyclical ‘postscript’ role at the end of ‘Hello Little Girl’ over the ‘oh yeah’ lyric. Just to make the point, here it is joined by two other examples - from both ends of The Beatles’ catalogue - all featuring this same, time-honoured lyrical ‘filler’.
Whatever the quality of the ii chord to which it moves, VI7 is most obvious as a turnaround device at the end of a song. It is frequently used by The Beatles as a repeated tag that takes us ‘around the block’, with VI7 repeatedly priming the ii (or II)-V-I cadence. Hear it blatantly flagged in this cyclical ‘postscript’ role at the end of ‘Hello Little Girl’ over the ‘oh yeah’ lyric. Just to make the point, here it is joined by two other examples - from both ends of The Beatles’ catalogue - all featuring this same, time-honoured lyrical ‘filler’.
Whatever the quality of the ii chord to which it moves, VI7 is most obvious as a turnaround device at the end of a song. It is frequently used by The Beatles as a repeated tag that takes us ‘around the block’, with VI7 repeatedly priming the ii (or II)-V-I cadence. Hear it blatantly flagged in this cyclical ‘postscript’ role at the end of ‘Hello Little Girl’ over the ‘oh yeah’ lyric. Just to make the point, here it is joined by two other examples - from both ends of The Beatles’ catalogue - all featuring this same, time-honoured lyrical ‘filler’.
This type of dominant VI chord often appears in the blues as a radical substitute for the V-IV -I move. Another Beatles excursion with Tony Sheridan, ‘My Bonnie’ shows this in action in a 16-bar structure.4 Note how the words ‘bring back’ match the cyclical return home.
This type of dominant VI chord often appears in the blues as a radical substitute for the V-IV -I move.
The Beatles’ contemporaries were also milking this bluesy cycle for all it was worth. Roy Lee Johnson’s ‘Mr Moonlight’ was even recorded by the Fab Four as late as Beatles For Sale.
Whatever the quality of the ii chord to which it moves, VI7 is most obvious as a turnaround device at the end of a song. It is frequently used by The Beatles as a repeated tag that takes us ‘around the block’, with VI7 repeatedly priming the ii (or II)-V-I cadence.
Talking of moonlight, a highlighted VI7 starts a Cycle Of Fifths turnaround on that very word in Pat Boone’s ‘I’ll Be Home’ which McCartney describes as ‘a huge favourite’
Whatever the quality of the ii chord to which it moves, VI7 is most obvious as a turnaround device at the end of a song. It is frequently used by The Beatles as a repeated tag that takes us ‘around the block’, with VI7 repeatedly priming the ii (or II)-V-I cadence.
they certainly notched
up their fair share of dominant VI-II-V-I cycles. listen to ‘I’ll Be On My Way’ (Live At The BBC, where VI7 is the focus in the bridge for a move that follows the run: F#7-B7-E7-A.
The ‘dominant turnaround cycle’ involving VI7 may be commonplace, but the more specific ‘II7-Vi move is simply another of the ultimate pop cliches, having being the focus of so many bridges since pop music began.
While we’re on Live At The BBC, check out The Beatles’ cover of ‘I Got A Woman’ to hear a perfect example of a secondary dominant. Here The Beatles replace ii with II as John Lennon cues a grand, Las Vegas-style coda, with F#-B-E appearing now as just a powerful II-V-I.
II7 and the ‘Imperfect Cadence’ - ‘the middle feeling’ Just as we saw Imperfect cadences cued by ii minor so we can find a II-V or II7-V7 sequence that ends a
progression - again without having resolved satisfactorily to the tonic. Again the V chord seems to take on a life of its own - as if the key centre had briefly shifted to it - a feeling to which the Il7 contributes more strongly than the ii minor.
This standard pop feature can be most easily understood with reference to the nursery rhyme ‘Jingle Bells’. The line ‘in a one horse open sleigh’, defines the II-V Imperfect cadence in the simplest of surroundings. While the tonic certainly reappears after the V, it only does so at the start of the next verse after the all-important delay.
II7 and the ‘Imperfect Cadence’ - ‘the middle feeling’ Just as we saw Imperfect cadences cued by ii minor so we can find a II-V or II7-V7 sequence that ends a
progression - again without having resolved satisfactorily to the tonic. Again the V chord seems to take on a life of its own - as if the key centre had briefly shifted to it - a feeling to which the Il7 contributes more strongly than the ii minor. A rather more sophisticated example occurs in ‘I Will’ on The White Album. It is perhaps the ultimate Beatles Imperfect cadence of this type as it simultaneously illustrates the semantic potential provided by the device.
Prior to this point in the song, all the G chords have been minor (ii chords). But now the G7 sets up V as we reach the crux of the song. As a bonus, the melody even makes use of the new, non-diatonic B note on the words ‘when we’re’, taking us in leading-note fashion to the C note, the root of the same V chord. And, of course, melodically, this ‘5’ (the C of ‘apart’) denies us the peaceful tonic and is a simple alternative to the ‘2’ that did so at the equivalent peak in ‘It Won’t Be Long’.
II7 and the ‘Imperfect Cadence’ - ‘the middle feeling’ Just as we saw Imperfect cadences cued by ii minor so we can find a II-V or II7-V7 sequence that ends a
progression - again without having resolved satisfactorily to the tonic. Again the V chord seems to take on a life of its own - as if the key centre had briefly shifted to it - a feeling to which the Il7 contributes more strongly than the ii minor. A rather more sophisticated example occurs in ‘I Will’ on The White Album. It is perhaps the ultimate Beatles Imperfect cadence of this type as it simultaneously illustrates the semantic potential provided by the device.
One songwriting expert even re-christens the Imperfect cadence ‘the middle feeling’ as it tends to occur in the middle of a song. Notice, once again, how this feeling is due to the sense of detachment that the listener experiences as they are left hanging in the air (just as with ‘It Won’t Be Long’ and so many of the V chord examples in Chapter 1). The effect on the listener is almost of a brief modulation - actually to the key of that V chord (albeit for usually for two brief bars) - with the home tonic appearing tantalisingly out of reach. Trust McCartney to match again, so naturally, the lyric to the chord sequence: the very word ‘apart’ mirrors precisely the artificial distance between the lovers who are now represented by those musical soulmates, V and I.
II7 and the ‘Imperfect Cadence’ - ‘the middle feeling’ Just as we saw Imperfect cadences cued by ii minor so we can find a II-V or II7-V7 sequence that ends a
progression - again without having resolved satisfactorily to the tonic. Again the V chord seems to take on a life of its own - as if the key centre had briefly shifted to it - a feeling to which the Il7 contributes more strongly than the ii minor. And despite its effortless appearance in this type of perfect pop ballad, ‘the middle feeling’ has venerable roll ‘n’ roll roots, as
confirmed by its appearance in so many cliched fifties ‘middle eights’.
We don’t have a recording of The Quarry Men that night, but Live At The BBC, Anthology 1 and various miscellaneous early releases make up for it by showing The Beatles completing exactly the same ‘middle feeling’ in a range of cover songs. Here are just a few examples, that take us from the early days right up to Ringo’s outing on Help!. In every case a strong II-V appears at the climax of the bridge .
II7 and the ‘Imperfect Cadence’ - ‘the middle feeling’ Just as we saw Imperfect cadences cued by ii minor so we can find a II-V or II7-V7 sequence that ends a
progression - again without having resolved satisfactorily to the tonic. Again the V chord seems to take on a life of its own - as if the key centre had briefly shifted to it - a feeling to which the Il7 contributes more strongly than the ii minor. And despite its effortless appearance in this type of perfect pop ballad, ‘the middle feeling’ has venerable roll ‘n’ roll roots, as
confirmed by its appearance in so many cliched fifties ‘middle eights’.
Given its heritage, it was perhaps no surprise that The Beatles would compose with this idea in a range of rock and pop outings, usually to exit the bridge and make us anticipate the next verse more strongly. We can spot it in many LennonfMcCartney songs, whether blatantly, as in ‘I’ll Get You’, or fleetingly, as in ‘I’ll Cry Instead’. Harrison, too, gets in on the act in ‘I Need You’ . And it’s no surprise, given h ow the device leaves us hanging in suspense, that the Imperfect cadence is usually associated with a suitably poignant lyrical message. It’s the crux of the song both lyrically and musically
II7 and the ‘Imperfect Cadence’ - ‘the middle feeling’ Just as we saw Imperfect cadences cued by ii minor so we can find a II-V or II7-V7 sequence that ends a
progression - again without having resolved satisfactorily to the tonic. Again the V chord seems to take on a life of its own - as if the key centre had briefly shifted to it - a feeling to which the Il7 contributes more strongly than the ii minor. And despite its effortless appearance in this type of perfect pop ballad, ‘the middle feeling’ has venerable roll ‘n’ roll roots, as
confirmed by its appearance in so many cliched fifties ‘middle eights’.
Here is a summary of just a few examples that demonstrate how The Beatles varied the extent of the effect - from a full bar on the V chord (in most cases) to barely a beat (,I’ll Cry Instead’)
Why stop at one Imperfect cadence? ‘One After 909’ features the device twice in the space of one, double-length bridge, showing how The Beatles had a twist up their sleeve for even the simplest of rock ‘n’ roll cliches.
Given the very term ‘middle eight’, the listener is expecting the verse to resume after eight bars culminating in the first Imperfect cadence - yet we are duly thwarted as the progression repeats. The fact this harmonic ‘bum steer’ coincides sublimely with the lyrics ‘wrong location’ speaks for itself.
II7 and the Cycle Of Fifths
While most of the ideas so far have been shown to be standard rock ‘n’ roll fare, the use of II7 in a more prominent Cycle Of Fifths setting helps us make another quantum leap towards an appreciation of more sophisticated Beatles songwriting. McCartney’s
‘Rocky Racoon’ is one song that illustrates this perfectly. The song eventually emerges as clearly in C major; yet it starts on the
relative minor (vi) which is soon confirmed as heading for the home tonic via a II- V.
Note how this cycle (virtually the only idea in the whole song) is started by a simple descent from I to vi, via the C/B, a transitionary chord where the bass note is the root of the vii chord. Notice also that, since it isn’t part of a ii -V, it doesn’t have the
power of the ‘mini-modulation to vi’ that we saw in ‘Yesterday’ and ‘Here, There And Every-where’. This descending line is a standard way of returning to the ‘top of the slide’ (to borrow a McCartney phrase) as each successive cycle resumes
from vi.
It may seem innocuous in this context , but the use of III7 slick songwriting in the early days of rock ‘n’ roll. II7 was
everywhere, but the ‘supercharged mediant’ - whose task is now to create a sense of anticipation for either the vi or VI7 - was much rarer. Like the plain iii, it is a chord which The Beatles used in the early days to ensure that their songs stood
out from the pack.
More ambitious was to use the III7 as an opening gambit for a bridge idea. This was brilliantly demonstrated in ‘You Can’t Do That’ , where a B7 chord reinforced by it’s rogue major 3rd in the melody combine to capture the singer’s gloating.
This shows us how the cycle can help take a songwriter ‘from anywhere to anywhere’ in music by means of barely more than thinly disguised sleight- of - hand. Again it’s much more than a theoretical tool. The Chromatic Cycle would be expertly exploited by The
Beatles themselves
It could be argued that we’ve meandered away from the key of D, initially to the key of the IV chord, G (a feeling that is reinforced by the re- hearing of the dominant of G, the D7, during the bridge). But we quickly return to the D tonic in midstream , and the overall effect reflects the singer attempting to break free from his
frustrations. Particularly slick is John ‘s use of the drop from G to F#7 and on to Bm, a ‘IV-III7-vi’ which we’ll later find used in the
switch to the minor bridge in ‘I Should Have Known Better’.
The first of these is the non -functioning secondary 6II7 within the four- chord cycle, 6I-II-IV-I a sequence that can be seen as an important trick of several mid -period Beatles songs. ‘You Won’t See Me’ and ‘Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band ‘ repeats this identical harmonic idea whose novelty
is achieved both by the unexpected root movement and the internal voice-leading within the harmony.
As far as root movement is concerned, the dark, sometimes ‘rocky’, minor third interval (here between II and IV) created a versatile, modern sound in the mid-sixties.
This is very slick use of II in songwriting, and conceptually far removed from its use in a standard II- V, that we saw earlier. For now the 3rd of the II, as Tillekens also describes, makes for ‘an unorthodox but excellent leading tone’ - one that now descends to
the root of the IV
The Beatles exploited a delicate variation whereby the first chord in the sequence is replaced by its
relative minor in a straightforward ‘vi-for-I’ substitution, to create ‘vi-II- IV -I’. At a stroke, we can now explain the defining cadential progressions in some of the most famous Beatles songs of all time, including ‘Yesterday’ and ‘She’s Leaving Home’.
Once again the progressions may seem to appear in unrelated contexts, but playing them will confirm to the ear that the
effect is of a Cycle Of Fifths movement that is thwarted by a Plagal cadence which lends a rock or gospel flavour. The four semitone voice-leading is retained as before, though now it is the flat 7th of the
vi7 - the same note as the 5th of I - that provides the opening tone. Of course , the overall effect is more mellow because of the
substitution.
The Beatles exploited a delicate variation whereby the first chord in the sequence is replaced by its
relative minor in a straightforward ‘vi-for-I’ substitution, to create ‘vi-II- IV -I’. At a stroke, we can now explain the defining cadential progressions in some of the most famous Beatles songs of all time, including ‘Yesterday’ and ‘She’s Leaving Home’.
The progressions may seem to appear in unrelated contexts, but playing them will confirm to the ear that the effect is of a Cycle Of Fifths movement that is thwarted by a Plagal cadence which lends a rock or gospel flavour. The four semitone voice-leading is retained as before, though now it is the flat 7th of the vi7 - the same note as the 5th of I - that provides the opening tone. Of course , the overall effect is more mellow because of the
substitution. ‘Yesterday’ actually features both of these progressions as the final line of the song: ‘I believe in yesterday’ follows the vi-II7- IV -I.
Meanwhile, even songs as seemingly far removed as ‘She Loves You’ and ‘In My Life’ can be seen to incorporate the essence of this concept: a II that shuns the expected V tension in favour of the more subtle subdominant.
As an alternative to the IV in all these progressions, The Beatles would also take a II chord directly back to the root for a disarming resolution after creating a highlight. Just listen to Paul’s ‘I’ll Follow The Sun ‘ where a II (operating in a -II-I fashion) adds strength to lines like ‘to see I’ve gone’ (0.09) and ‘I was the one’ (0.23) .
III7
It was testimony to The Beatles’ early songwriting brilliance that one of their oldest known compositions, ‘like Dreamers Do’, features a novel thwarting of the expected Cycle Of Fifths movement by means of nonfunctioning secondary dominant III7
Notice how a ‘I- vi ‘ move here would have copied the verse in a thinly disguised take on the Doo Wop cycle. But the III7 at the start of the bridge is a successful attempt to avoid the cliche - not to mention bringing poignancy to the word ‘bliss’ - by sliding down a
second interval to prompt a ii-V -I cadence.
Undoubtedly the most inspired use of this type of III7 in The Beatles’ songbook (maybe in the history of pop) occurs in ‘I Want To Hold Your Hand’. the following chord built on the mediant, which supports a boldly sustained natural
7th (F6 in the key of G) to which the melody has plunged , on the last syllable of ‘understand’
Notice how the melodic tension in the soaring vocals is enhanced harmonically ahead of the move to an emphatic C chord, cueing the ‘IV-V-I-vi’ cycle of the chorus that we are now aching to hear. While a diatonic iii-IV would have done the trick through the semitone voiceleading of the root alone, we surely feel that propulsion all the more strongly with the implied D# in the B7 chord also gliding up a half -step.
How the B7 chord propels ‘I ‘Want To Hold Your Hand’
Again, high novelty from The Beatles as early as 1963. And it was no wonder that William Mann referred directly to this sequence in his famous article in The Times that same year, praising the ‘mediant switches’, as he termed them , which he saw accompanying ‘the famous octave ascent in I Want To Hold Your Hand’.
The Beatles also revisited the intrinsic tension-building device of a nonfunctioning III on its way to IV in the heart -stopping coda of ‘ I Want To Hold Your Hand’ - a trick that would be resurrected in the wrap- up to ‘Yes It Is’,
Here a major III appears for the first time in the song especially to create a final highlight before the final Plagal drop to I.
as we now know The Beatles received an early masterclass in III- IV from the intricate pre - chorus bridge
of ‘Soldier Of Love’, the fine Cason-Moon composition that we visited earlier.
The neat E-G#7-A-B cycle may have been a model for such a rare songwriting treat for the time , though The Beatles’ version is more elaborate as the sequence spans verse and chorus making for a powerful link between the sections.
Back with Beatles originals, we can see how a variation of this sequence in ‘You’re Going To Lose That Girl’ merely involves a ‘ii-for- IV substitution , keeping int act the voice-leading of the 3rd of III into a strong chord tone (this time the 5th of the ii minor).
Not only could The Beatles use a non -functioning III to charge the proceedings, they could also use it to deflate them subtly. Take the bridge of ‘That Means A Lot’ - in the first strain, a functioning III takes us predictably to the relative minor in the key of E.
But the end of the bridge delivers a slow- motion variation on the ‘vi -III’ plunge of ‘I Want To Hold Your Hand’ , as the G# leaves us hanging in place of the ‘expected’ B7.
A closer look at the combination of melody and harmony shows us that we have another poignant Beatles blend of consonance
and dissonance. The melody features a G# note that is happily waiting to ‘become’ the 3rd of the E chord , while the prominent 3rd of the G# chord resolves the tension by falling a semitone onto the 5th of E. An arguably lazy - but nevertheless highly effective - way
of engineering a re-transition from bridge back to verse .
The song, ‘Piggies’, emerges as a case study for the non -functioning III chord. In the bridge it appears first as a
III- IV -I and then in the same legendary III- IV - V of’ I Want To Hold Your Hand’. Though now providing a ‘whacking’ good run - up to an Imperfect cadence over the same lyric. ‘Piggies’ also demonstrates how the ‘non -functioning’ term is a bit of misnomer.
For all chords ‘function’ in one sense of the word - just to a greater or lesser extent in a formal musical sense. ‘III- IV merely powers a song in a different way to a cyclical ‘III-vi’ - and it’s hardly disorientating in comparison with the other III7 of ‘Piggies’. For this maverick C7 enjoys its first appearance in what is a left-field ‘bolt from the blue’, instantly revealing a new ‘suburb’ in George’s commuter land by moving neither to Fm nor C# but, this time, awkwardly down a tone to B flat minor.
Instead of maintaining A major, Lennon delivers an F#, a chord whose major 3rd , A# , clashes with the A natural we seemed to be guaranteed. Even more spectacularly, that same ‘outside ‘ A# is the chosen melody note for the very word ‘out’ in the
line ‘count me out’, making the music mirror Lennon’s independence as a free thinker. Even in this primitive brazen, post -Chuck Berry rock ‘n’ roll, is another deft nuance that distances The Beatles from the pack.
VII 7
Even rarer than functioning secondary dominants built on the leading note are the non -functioning ones . And yet Lennon makes it sound so simple as he conjures a Four -Chord cliche with a difference in ‘I’m So Tired’. Here, preceding his favourite Doo Wop variation, is a rather more novel one which sees the tonic drop down to precisely this ‘VII major’ before completing the sequence
conventionally through IV and V.
The G#7 could be seen as a exotic swap for the expected F#m by means of a ‘common tone substitution’ as both
chords contain the F# note. Check out the voice-leading for two neat semitone resolutions into the D chord. For Lennon was no doubt looking for a chord that would provide support for the G# note (the natural 7th ) after its drop from A. He could have done this by just moving from A to A major 7th - But perhaps the major triad on VII provided Lennon with what he felt was a stronger, less ‘lounge ballad’ sound.
Why is this so unexpected? We know that the root of the leading tone will find resolution on the tonic. And, of course
there is, by definition, all that additional semitone voice-leading to be enjoyed by the 3rd and 5th of the VII chord. In any case, isn’t it standard musical practice to approach just about any chord from a half -step below?
However, with most half -step approaches the duration that the extreme dissonance prevails is fleeting, and the resolution highly
anticipated. Take, for example the ultra-swift ‘ 1- VII-I’ cliche that ends ‘Octopus’s Garden’ (C-B- C) after the closing guitar lick. This is very different to ‘P.S. I Love You’, where McCartney bravely prolongs the chord (over the words ‘write this’) long enough for a highly disorientating effect, with stability only restored on the tonic over the word ‘letter’.
Essentially, this is an unexpected resolution because prior to the eventual sounding of the D chord, the ear would have heard a resolution to (believe it or not) an F# major, as this is the expected I chord a fifth below. Play the sequence , dwell on the C#7 and confirm it for yourself.
A secondary dominant case study - ‘Day Tripper’ let’s take a look at ‘Day Tripper’ in which The Beatles experimented with a full range of dominant chords of all descriptions. In particular we can now differentiate between functioning and non -functioning secondary dominants - neither of which are to be confused with the ‘primary dominant’ and the blues dominant 7ths on I and IV
All in all, what better musical premise to depict the lyrical theme. From the outset the listener thinks (like John himself) that he’s onto ‘a sure thing’, given how we hear ten bars of straight tonic and another eight bars of just bluesy I and IV . Only for the music to then lead us - just like the girl in the song - right up the garden path.
